Marine_ A Guided Tour Of A Marine Expeditionary Unit Part 10

Not just a packing crate for Marines and their equipment, Wasp Wasp is a platform capable of many different missions, from amphibious raids and a.s.saults, to sea control (escorting convoys and protecting sea lanes). It is perhaps for this reason that the is a platform capable of many different missions, from amphibious raids and a.s.saults, to sea control (escorting convoys and protecting sea lanes). It is perhaps for this reason that the Wasp Wasp (LHD-1) and her sister s.h.i.+ps, (LHD-1) and her sister s.h.i.+ps, Ess.e.x Ess.e.x (LHD-2), (LHD-2), Kearsarge Kearsarge (LHD-3), and (LHD-3), and Boxer Boxer (LHD-4), have become the most sought-after s.h.i.+ps in the Navy. When the next three LHDs, (LHD-4), have become the most sought-after s.h.i.+ps in the Navy. When the next three LHDs, Bataan Bataan (LHD-5), (LHD-5), Bonhomme Richard Bonhomme Richard (LHD-6), and the still unnamed seventh unit of the cla.s.s, join the fleet in a few years, it will give all twelve ARGs a big-deck aviation s.h.i.+p. The final three s.h.i.+ps have significant improvements over the earlier LHDs. The Ex-31 RAM launchers and 25mm Bushmaster cannon mounts will be built in from the start, along with smaller superstructures, more aviation fuel capacity, and improved communications, damage control, and medical capabilities. There will also be accommodations for female personnel, under the "Women at Sea" program (see the LPD-17 below for more on this). These features will be retrofitted to earlier units during their first major overhauls. The (LHD-6), and the still unnamed seventh unit of the cla.s.s, join the fleet in a few years, it will give all twelve ARGs a big-deck aviation s.h.i.+p. The final three s.h.i.+ps have significant improvements over the earlier LHDs. The Ex-31 RAM launchers and 25mm Bushmaster cannon mounts will be built in from the start, along with smaller superstructures, more aviation fuel capacity, and improved communications, damage control, and medical capabilities. There will also be accommodations for female personnel, under the "Women at Sea" program (see the LPD-17 below for more on this). These features will be retrofitted to earlier units during their first major overhauls. The Wasp Wasp and her sister s.h.i.+ps represent the core of America's forced-entry capability, and will be so for decades to come. and her sister s.h.i.+ps represent the core of America's forced-entry capability, and will be so for decades to come.

USS Whidby Island Whidby Island (LSD-41) (LSD-41) At almost $1.25 billion dollars each, Wasp- Wasp-cla.s.s LHDs are hardly the most economical solution for every amphibious task. Sometimes, you need a s.h.i.+p that does just one or two things well. So the Landing s.h.i.+p Dock (LSD) was created. The LSD is a transport and service platform for landing craft. At first, they were simple s.h.i.+ps with well decks and minimal stowage or troop capacity. They could "flood down" to launch landing craft. Later, LSDs evolved into general-purpose vessels, with long-term accommodations for embarked troops and equipment, and limited helicopter capability. The design of the Anchorage Anchorage (LSD-36) cla.s.s, constructed in the 1960s and 1970s, emphasized carrying large numbers of landing craft. These five s.h.i.+ps served effectively in ARGs for almost three decades. But they are at the end of their service lives. The (LSD-36) cla.s.s, constructed in the 1960s and 1970s, emphasized carrying large numbers of landing craft. These five s.h.i.+ps served effectively in ARGs for almost three decades. But they are at the end of their service lives. The Whidbey Island Whidbey Island (LSD-41) cla.s.s will replace them. (LSD-41) cla.s.s will replace them.

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The USS Whidbey Island Whidbey Island (LSD-41) leaves Cadiz, Spain, on February 16th, 1996, headed home from her 1995/96 Mediterranean cruise. (LSD-41) leaves Cadiz, Spain, on February 16th, 1996, headed home from her 1995/96 Mediterranean cruise.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

The Whidbey Island Whidbey Island cla.s.s supplements the capabilities of the big-deck aviation s.h.i.+ps of an ARG. In the event of a need to "split" an ARG, the LSD always accompanies the LHD, LHA, or LPD. This lets the ARG commander retain a forced-entry capability, due to the numerous landing craft the two s.h.i.+ps carry. While the LSDs lack the command and control capabilities of the LHDs and LHAs, and the cargo capacity of the LPDs, they serve a vital role as amphibious delivery systems. Let's get to know cla.s.s supplements the capabilities of the big-deck aviation s.h.i.+ps of an ARG. In the event of a need to "split" an ARG, the LSD always accompanies the LHD, LHA, or LPD. This lets the ARG commander retain a forced-entry capability, due to the numerous landing craft the two s.h.i.+ps carry. While the LSDs lack the command and control capabilities of the LHDs and LHAs, and the cargo capacity of the LPDs, they serve a vital role as amphibious delivery systems. Let's get to know Whidbey Island Whidbey Island a bit better. a bit better.

In the early 1980s, planners at Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) began to think about the mix of s.h.i.+ps they wanted for the ARGs of the 1990s and beyond. Even before the decision to build Wasp Wasp-cla.s.s LHDs, they knew that standoff from the enemy sh.o.r.e would dominate future amphibious s.h.i.+p design. While the old Anchorage-cla.s.s Anchorage-cla.s.s LSDs could carry and operate the new air cus.h.i.+oned landing craft, it was clear that more LCACs would be needed in an ARG to replace the slower, more vulnerable LCUs. NAVSEA set about designing a new s.h.i.+p, known as the LSD-41, and selecting a contractor. The first three s.h.i.+ps went to Lockheed s.h.i.+pbuilding in Seattle, Was.h.i.+ngton. LSDs could carry and operate the new air cus.h.i.+oned landing craft, it was clear that more LCACs would be needed in an ARG to replace the slower, more vulnerable LCUs. NAVSEA set about designing a new s.h.i.+p, known as the LSD-41, and selecting a contractor. The first three s.h.i.+ps went to Lockheed s.h.i.+pbuilding in Seattle, Was.h.i.+ngton. Whidbey Island Whidbey Island was laid down on August 4th, 1981, launched on June 10th, 1983, and commissioned two years later on February 9th, 1985, with further units at one-year intervals. When Lockheed decided to leave the s.h.i.+p construction industry in the 1980s, the rest of the cla.s.s was awarded to Avondale Industries of New Orleans, Louisiana. Avondale, an old Navy contractor, built the was laid down on August 4th, 1981, launched on June 10th, 1983, and commissioned two years later on February 9th, 1985, with further units at one-year intervals. When Lockheed decided to leave the s.h.i.+p construction industry in the 1980s, the rest of the cla.s.s was awarded to Avondale Industries of New Orleans, Louisiana. Avondale, an old Navy contractor, built the Knox- Knox-cla.s.s (FF-1052) ASW frigates in the 1960s and 1970s. Set on the banks of the Mississippi, the yard uses more conventional technology than Litton Ingalls. Avondale's old-style slipways and serial a.s.sembly methods may suffer in head-to-head price comparisons with foreign compet.i.tors, but they do build quality s.h.i.+ps.

The Whidbey Island-cla.s.s s.h.i.+ps are relatively conventional, being evolutionary follow-ons to the LSD-36 cla.s.s, with small but significant improvements. Only 609 ft/185.8 m long and 84 ft/25.6 m in beam, they are much smaller s.h.i.+ps than the Wasp. Wasp. Displacement is just 17,745 tons fully loaded. The have a shallow draft of 19.5 ft/6 m versus 26 2/3 ft/8.1 m for the LHDs. Displacement is just 17,745 tons fully loaded. The have a shallow draft of 19.5 ft/6 m versus 26 2/3 ft/8.1 m for the LHDs. Whidbey Island Whidbey Island is powered by medium-speed marine diesels, rather than steam turbines. The four SEMT-Pielstick engines deliver a combined total of 41,600 hp to twin shafts, for a top speed of 22 kt/40.25 kph. At an economical 20 kt/36.5 kph, they can cruise for 8,000 nm/ 14,816 km without refueling--an excellent match for the LHDs and LHAs. A relatively small crew of 334 officers and enlisted sailors reduces operating costs. is powered by medium-speed marine diesels, rather than steam turbines. The four SEMT-Pielstick engines deliver a combined total of 41,600 hp to twin shafts, for a top speed of 22 kt/40.25 kph. At an economical 20 kt/36.5 kph, they can cruise for 8,000 nm/ 14,816 km without refueling--an excellent match for the LHDs and LHAs. A relatively small crew of 334 officers and enlisted sailors reduces operating costs.

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Looking forward into the cavernous well deck of the USS Whidbey Island Whidbey Island (LSD-41). This deck can accommodate up to four LCACs or three LCUs. or be used to store vehicles. (LSD-41). This deck can accommodate up to four LCACs or three LCUs. or be used to store vehicles.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

The most notable features of the Whidbey Island Whidbey Island cla.s.s are the large deckhouse forward for stowage and accommodations, and long well deck, topped by a flight deck with a pair of landing spots for helicopters up to the size of a CH-53E Sea Stallion. Since the cla.s.s lacks hangar or support facilities, no helicopters are based aboard while on cruise, and LSD-41s can only refuel helicopters based on other s.h.i.+ps. The well deck has room for up to four LCACs, three LCUs, or ten LCM-8s should there be a need to utilize those older craft. The well deck resembles the one on cla.s.s are the large deckhouse forward for stowage and accommodations, and long well deck, topped by a flight deck with a pair of landing spots for helicopters up to the size of a CH-53E Sea Stallion. Since the cla.s.s lacks hangar or support facilities, no helicopters are based aboard while on cruise, and LSD-41s can only refuel helicopters based on other s.h.i.+ps. The well deck has room for up to four LCACs, three LCUs, or ten LCM-8s should there be a need to utilize those older craft. The well deck resembles the one on Wasp, Wasp, using ballast tanks to lower the stern and flood the deck so landing craft can arrive or depart. Measuring 440 ft/141.1 m in length, 50 ft/15.2 m in width, and 27 ft./8.2 m. in height, it is the largest well deck on any amphibious s.h.i.+p. Landing craft park end-to-end, as on using ballast tanks to lower the stern and flood the deck so landing craft can arrive or depart. Measuring 440 ft/141.1 m in length, 50 ft/15.2 m in width, and 27 ft./8.2 m. in height, it is the largest well deck on any amphibious s.h.i.+p. Landing craft park end-to-end, as on Wasp, Wasp, and can be loaded by driving vehicle through one landing craft to get to another. and can be loaded by driving vehicle through one landing craft to get to another.

Despite their minimalist design, the LSD-41s are quite capable at handling landing craft and off-loading cargo. They carry two electric two-ton forklifts, two pallet jacks, two five-ton rough terrain forklifts, an eight-ton cargo elevator, and three large cranes with (fifteen, twenty, and sixty ton capacity). A special turntable in the ramp between the well and helicopter decks speeds vehicle movement and handling. With 13,500 ft2 of vehicle s.p.a.ce and 5,100 ft of vehicle s.p.a.ce and 5,100 ft3 of cargo s.p.a.ce, they are smaller than the LHDs and LHAs, but still capable of carrying a useful payload. Berthing s.p.a.ce for up to 454 Marines is similar to what we saw on of cargo s.p.a.ce, they are smaller than the LHDs and LHAs, but still capable of carrying a useful payload. Berthing s.p.a.ce for up to 454 Marines is similar to what we saw on Wasp. Wasp.

The LSD-41 s lack many of the features found on the Wasp Wasp cla.s.s. These include: cla.s.s. These include: * Command and Control Facilities-- Command and Control Facilities--The LSD-41 s have only a CIC and a Tactical Landing Support Group s.p.a.ce. There are no provisions for a flag staff, and no flag plot.* Medical Facilities Medical Facilities--The Whidbey Island Whidbey Island cla.s.s has only a single operating theater and eight beds (one intensive care, two isolation, five primary care), with no real overflow capability. It depends on the large-deck amphibs for medical support. cla.s.s has only a single operating theater and eight beds (one intensive care, two isolation, five primary care), with no real overflow capability. It depends on the large-deck amphibs for medical support. The landing dock s.h.i.+p USS The landing dock s.h.i.+p USS Harpers Ferry Harpers Ferry (LSD-49), It is a near-copy of the USS (LSD-49), It is a near-copy of the USS Whidbey Island Whidbey Island (LSD-41), but its well deck has been shortened to provide more cargo and vehicule stowage and one cargo crane has been deleted. (LSD-41), but its well deck has been shortened to provide more cargo and vehicule stowage and one cargo crane has been deleted. JACKk RYAN ENTERPRISES, LTD., BY LAURA ALPHER JACKk RYAN ENTERPRISES, LTD., BY LAURA ALPHER[image]

* Sensors Sensors--SPS-49 air search, SPS-64 (V)9 navigation, and SPS-67 surface-search radars are carried. There are no fire-control systems of any kind.* Defensive Armament Defensive Armament - The LSD-41s are armed with only a pair of Mk 16 20mm CIWS, two Mk 67 25mm Bushmaster cannon mounts, and two mounts for M2 .50-cal. machine guns. The basic SLQ-32 (V)1 electronic warfare suite has only a radar-warning receiver and four Mk 137 SRBOC/decoy launchers. They also have an SLQ-25 Nixie system. No radar jammer is fitted. These s.h.i.+ps require combatant escort to survive in a hostile environment. - The LSD-41s are armed with only a pair of Mk 16 20mm CIWS, two Mk 67 25mm Bushmaster cannon mounts, and two mounts for M2 .50-cal. machine guns. The basic SLQ-32 (V)1 electronic warfare suite has only a radar-warning receiver and four Mk 137 SRBOC/decoy launchers. They also have an SLQ-25 Nixie system. No radar jammer is fitted. These s.h.i.+ps require combatant escort to survive in a hostile environment.

Though the Whidbey Island s.h.i.+ps seem austere compared to Wasp Wasp-cla.s.s LHDs, they do have features that make them valuable amphibs, including: * Structures/Protection-- Structures/Protection--The LSD-41s have the same structural protection as the Wasp cla.s.s, including hardening of the deckhouse against fragment damage from a near miss.* Environmental Protection-- Environmental Protection--The Whidbey Island Whidbey Island cla.s.s has the same kind of nuclear/chemical/biological CPS system as the LHDs, and thus the same levels of air-conditioned comfort. cla.s.s has the same kind of nuclear/chemical/biological CPS system as the LHDs, and thus the same levels of air-conditioned comfort.

How would all this work in combat? Consider the following example. In most cases, the ARG staff will load up the LSD-41 with heavy vehicles like M 1A1 Abrams tanks and wheeled LAVs. This provides an armored punch for the early waves of a Marine a.s.sault or raid. Once Whidbey Island's Whidbey Island's own load of equipment and cargo is off-loaded, the landing craft help other s.h.i.+ps to unload vehicles and cargo, thus speeding the flow of combat power to the beach. This secondary role of landing craft base is what makes the LSDs so valuable to an ARG commander. own load of equipment and cargo is off-loaded, the landing craft help other s.h.i.+ps to unload vehicles and cargo, thus speeding the flow of combat power to the beach. This secondary role of landing craft base is what makes the LSDs so valuable to an ARG commander.

A total of eight LSD-41s were built. These include three Lockheed-built units; Whidbey Island Whidbey Island (LSD-41), (LSD-41), Germantown Germantown (LSD-42), and (LSD-42), and Fort McHenry Fort McHenry (LSD-43), plus five Avondale-produced s.h.i.+ps: (LSD-43), plus five Avondale-produced s.h.i.+ps: Gunston Hall Gunston Hall (LSD-44), (LSD-44), Comstock Comstock (LSD-45), (LSD-45), Tortuga Tortuga (LSD-46), (LSD-46), Rushmore Rushmore (LSD-47), and (LSD-47), and Ashland Ashland (LSD-48). Four additional units are being built to a modified configuration that has an interesting origin. You see, the new amphibious s.h.i.+ps, when combined with over-the-horizon delivery systems like the CH-53E Sea Stallion and LCAC, can actually put troops, vehicles, and cargo onto a beach faster than Navy beachmasters can handle it. There is a physical limit to how fast you can move stuff over a beach, and the beach control parties that serve as the ARGs "traffic cops" have hit that limit. The LCACs turned out to be faster at doing their jobs than expected. This gave NAVSEA an opportunity to modify the last four s.h.i.+ps of the LSD-41 cla.s.s. Since the new LHDs could carry up to three LCACs, and the older LPD-4 cla.s.s a.s.sault s.h.i.+ps could carry two, this meant that an ARG only required two more to reach the desired level of seven such craft. So, the last four units of the (LSD-48). Four additional units are being built to a modified configuration that has an interesting origin. You see, the new amphibious s.h.i.+ps, when combined with over-the-horizon delivery systems like the CH-53E Sea Stallion and LCAC, can actually put troops, vehicles, and cargo onto a beach faster than Navy beachmasters can handle it. There is a physical limit to how fast you can move stuff over a beach, and the beach control parties that serve as the ARGs "traffic cops" have hit that limit. The LCACs turned out to be faster at doing their jobs than expected. This gave NAVSEA an opportunity to modify the last four s.h.i.+ps of the LSD-41 cla.s.s. Since the new LHDs could carry up to three LCACs, and the older LPD-4 cla.s.s a.s.sault s.h.i.+ps could carry two, this meant that an ARG only required two more to reach the desired level of seven such craft. So, the last four units of the Whidbey Island Whidbey Island cla.s.s, redesignated the cla.s.s, redesignated the Harpers Ferry Harpers Ferry (LSD-49) cla.s.s, were redesigned with a shortened well deck (only 184 ft/56 m long). The remaining s.p.a.ce would be used to enlarge the vehicle and cargo footprints of the new s.h.i.+ps, as the table below shows: (LSD-49) cla.s.s, were redesigned with a shortened well deck (only 184 ft/56 m long). The remaining s.p.a.ce would be used to enlarge the vehicle and cargo footprints of the new s.h.i.+ps, as the table below shows: LSD-41/49 vs. LSD-36 Payload Footprints [image]

As you can see, the cargo2/vehicle s.p.a.ce in LSD-49 has been expanded by 15% over LSD-41, and the cargo3 s.p.a.ce by a whopping 994%. This makes the LSD-49s very valuable amphibious s.h.i.+ps. Any CO of a forward-deployed unit will tell you that they never have enough stowage s.p.a.ce for "stuff," and the trade-off on these s.h.i.+ps makes them an outstanding value for the money. All four s.p.a.ce by a whopping 994%. This makes the LSD-49s very valuable amphibious s.h.i.+ps. Any CO of a forward-deployed unit will tell you that they never have enough stowage s.p.a.ce for "stuff," and the trade-off on these s.h.i.+ps makes them an outstanding value for the money. All four--Harpers Ferry (LSD-49), (LSD-49), Carter Hall Carter Hall (LSD-50), (LSD-50), Oak Hill Oak Hill (LSD-51), and (LSD-51), and Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor (LSD-52-named for the facility, not the battle!)--are built by Avondale in New Orleans. The first two are already in service, and the other two are scheduled for completion by early 1997. One LSD-41/49 will be a.s.signed to each of the Navy's 12 ARGs. Right now, 12 ARGs only provide about 2.5 MEBs of lift, as opposed to the 3 that the Marine Corps considers necessary to meet mission requirements. Additional LSDs are unlikely though, since the Navy is committed to construct new LPD-17-cla.s.s a.s.sault s.h.i.+ps to replace aging (LSD-52-named for the facility, not the battle!)--are built by Avondale in New Orleans. The first two are already in service, and the other two are scheduled for completion by early 1997. One LSD-41/49 will be a.s.signed to each of the Navy's 12 ARGs. Right now, 12 ARGs only provide about 2.5 MEBs of lift, as opposed to the 3 that the Marine Corps considers necessary to meet mission requirements. Additional LSDs are unlikely though, since the Navy is committed to construct new LPD-17-cla.s.s a.s.sault s.h.i.+ps to replace aging Austin-cla.s.s Austin-cla.s.s LPDs. LPDs.

USS Shreveport Shreveport (LPD-12) (LPD-12) The USS Shreveport Shreveport (LPD-12) leaves Morehead City, N.C., on August 29th, 1995, on her way to the Mediterranean. She is fully loaded for "split ARG" operations, and is headed to Bulgaria for an exercise. (LPD-12) leaves Morehead City, N.C., on August 29th, 1995, on her way to the Mediterranean. She is fully loaded for "split ARG" operations, and is headed to Bulgaria for an exercise.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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The Landing a.s.sault s.h.i.+p USS Shreveport Shreveport (LPD-12) is a living legacy of the 1960s-era s.h.i.+pbuilding program that has been the backbone of the amphibious force for three decades. While old by wars.h.i.+p standards (she was commissioned in 1970), cramped, and antiquated compared to contemporary designs, she still has many years of service ahead. Part of the eleven-s.h.i.+p (LPD-12) is a living legacy of the 1960s-era s.h.i.+pbuilding program that has been the backbone of the amphibious force for three decades. While old by wars.h.i.+p standards (she was commissioned in 1970), cramped, and antiquated compared to contemporary designs, she still has many years of service ahead. Part of the eleven-s.h.i.+p Austin Austin cla.s.s (LPD-4 to -15), cla.s.s (LPD-4 to -15), Shreveport Shreveport may serve for another ten to fifteen years. The LPD is the "swing" s.h.i.+p--a virtual "utility infielder" among the three s.h.i.+ps that usually comprise an ARG. While the LHDs/LHAs and LSDs work together as the "big" decks of the ARG, the LPD is a general-purpose workhorse, taking on missions that used to be a.s.signed to the LSTs and LKAs. When an ARG splits to undertake more than one mission at a time, the LPD is frequently on her own. LPDs tend to pick up the stray "cats and dogs" of the embarked MEU (SOC), such as amphibious tractors, Force Recon teams, and the SEAL team. They act as a floating Forward Fuel and Arming Point (FFARP) for helicopters, and a base for the AH-1W Cobra attack helicopters and the embarked Pioneer UAV unit. That's a lot to ask of an old s.h.i.+p like may serve for another ten to fifteen years. The LPD is the "swing" s.h.i.+p--a virtual "utility infielder" among the three s.h.i.+ps that usually comprise an ARG. While the LHDs/LHAs and LSDs work together as the "big" decks of the ARG, the LPD is a general-purpose workhorse, taking on missions that used to be a.s.signed to the LSTs and LKAs. When an ARG splits to undertake more than one mission at a time, the LPD is frequently on her own. LPDs tend to pick up the stray "cats and dogs" of the embarked MEU (SOC), such as amphibious tractors, Force Recon teams, and the SEAL team. They act as a floating Forward Fuel and Arming Point (FFARP) for helicopters, and a base for the AH-1W Cobra attack helicopters and the embarked Pioneer UAV unit. That's a lot to ask of an old s.h.i.+p like Shreveport Shreveport (LPD-12), but she does her best in a world where she is little loved, but heavily used. (LPD-12), but she does her best in a world where she is little loved, but heavily used.

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A side view of the multipurpose amphibious s.h.i.+p USS Shreveport Shreveport (LPD-12). (LPD-12).

JACK RYAN ENTERPRISES, LTD,. BY LAURA ALPHAER.

The original LPDs of the Raleigh Raleigh cla.s.s (LPD-1) were designed in the late 1950s to transport a large load of amphibious troops and supplies, at the expense of off-load capability. LPDs have relatively small well decks compared to the LHAs, LHDs, and LSDs, as well as smaller aviation facilities, with only a single helicopter landing pad. They are nevertheless one of the three types of amphibious s.h.i.+ps that will survive (along with the big deck LHDs/LHAs and the LSD) into the 21st century. There even are plans to build a new cla.s.s of twelve (the LPD-17s), though the LPD-4s will stay around for almost a decade before these new s.h.i.+ps enter service. Following the three cla.s.s (LPD-1) were designed in the late 1950s to transport a large load of amphibious troops and supplies, at the expense of off-load capability. LPDs have relatively small well decks compared to the LHAs, LHDs, and LSDs, as well as smaller aviation facilities, with only a single helicopter landing pad. They are nevertheless one of the three types of amphibious s.h.i.+ps that will survive (along with the big deck LHDs/LHAs and the LSD) into the 21st century. There even are plans to build a new cla.s.s of twelve (the LPD-17s), though the LPD-4s will stay around for almost a decade before these new s.h.i.+ps enter service. Following the three Raleigh- Raleigh-cla.s.s s.h.i.+ps, a further cla.s.s of LPDs was constructed in the late 1960s. These became the Austin Austin cla.s.s (LPD-4), in service around the world today. cla.s.s (LPD-4), in service around the world today.

The Shreveport Shreveport and her sister s.h.i.+ps look a lot like the older LSD-36-cla.s.s docks.h.i.+ps, except that they have a larger superstructure, as well as a shorter main deck/helicopter platform and well deck. She is some 570 ft/173.7 m long, with a beam of 84 ft/25.6 m, and a nominal draft (with the ballast tanks dry) of 23 ft/7 m. Full displacement is 16,905 tons. The twelve s.h.i.+ps of the cla.s.s were constructed in three separate s.h.i.+pyards. USS and her sister s.h.i.+ps look a lot like the older LSD-36-cla.s.s docks.h.i.+ps, except that they have a larger superstructure, as well as a shorter main deck/helicopter platform and well deck. She is some 570 ft/173.7 m long, with a beam of 84 ft/25.6 m, and a nominal draft (with the ballast tanks dry) of 23 ft/7 m. Full displacement is 16,905 tons. The twelve s.h.i.+ps of the cla.s.s were constructed in three separate s.h.i.+pyards. USS Austin Austin (LPD-4), USS (LPD-4), USS Ogden Ogden (LPD-5), and USS (LPD-5), and USS Duluth Duluth (LPD-6) were built at the government-owned New York Naval s.h.i.+pyard, some of the last U.S. wars.h.i.+ps built there. Ingalls built USS (LPD-6) were built at the government-owned New York Naval s.h.i.+pyard, some of the last U.S. wars.h.i.+ps built there. Ingalls built USS Cleveland Cleveland (LPD-7) and USS (LPD-7) and USS Dubuque Dubuque (LPD-8) at Ingalls in Pascagoula, Mississippi. USS (LPD-8) at Ingalls in Pascagoula, Mississippi. USS Denver Denver (LPD-9), USS (LPD-9), USS Juneau Juneau (LPD-10), USS (LPD-10), USS Coronado Coronado (LPD-11), USS (LPD-11), USS Shreveport Shreveport (LPD-12), USS (LPD-12), USS Nashville Nashville (LPD- 13), USS (LPD- 13), USS Trenton Trenton (LPD-14), and USS (LPD-14), and USS Ponce Ponce (LPD-15), were all built by Lockheed s.h.i.+pbuilding in Seattle. (LPD-15), were all built by Lockheed s.h.i.+pbuilding in Seattle. Coronado Coronado (LPD-11) was converted into a command s.h.i.+p. (LPD-11) was converted into a command s.h.i.+p.

Shreveport (LPD-12) was laid down in Seattle, Was.h.i.+ngton, on December 27th, 1965, launched on October 25th, 1966, and commissioned on December 12th, 1970. She is powered by two 2.600-PSI Babc.o.c.k and Wilc.o.x boilers feeding a pair of De Laval steam turbines for a total of 24,000 hp to the twin shafts. Maximum speed is 21 kt/38.4 kph, though the efficiency of the powerplant allows it to cruise at 20 kt/ 36.6 kph. The steam plant is old and cranky by comparison to newer Navy steam, diesel, and gas turbine s.h.i.+ps. Nevertheless, her dedicated "snipes" keep her going. (LPD-12) was laid down in Seattle, Was.h.i.+ngton, on December 27th, 1965, launched on October 25th, 1966, and commissioned on December 12th, 1970. She is powered by two 2.600-PSI Babc.o.c.k and Wilc.o.x boilers feeding a pair of De Laval steam turbines for a total of 24,000 hp to the twin shafts. Maximum speed is 21 kt/38.4 kph, though the efficiency of the powerplant allows it to cruise at 20 kt/ 36.6 kph. The steam plant is old and cranky by comparison to newer Navy steam, diesel, and gas turbine s.h.i.+ps. Nevertheless, her dedicated "snipes" keep her going. Shreveport Shreveport is one of nine s.h.i.+ps in the cla.s.s with extra bridge and berthing s.p.a.ce, so it can act as a squadron flags.h.i.+p in "split ARG" operations. is one of nine s.h.i.+ps in the cla.s.s with extra bridge and berthing s.p.a.ce, so it can act as a squadron flags.h.i.+p in "split ARG" operations.

When you walk around Shreveport, Shreveport, you find it generally similar to other Navy wars.h.i.+ps: gray paint, the overhead crowded with piping, conduits, and wiring runs, and hatches that need to be opened and closed by hand. But you find it generally similar to other Navy wars.h.i.+ps: gray paint, the overhead crowded with piping, conduits, and wiring runs, and hatches that need to be opened and closed by hand. But Shreveport Shreveport is different from the s.h.i.+ps we have visited so far. While some systems have been updated, there is a 1960s "feel" to the structure you see. Austin-cla.s.s (LPD-4) s.h.i.+ps were designed for a crew of drafted conscripts instead of volunteer professionals. The s.h.i.+p's systems had minimal automation (which required costly a.n.a.log electronics) and maximum utilization of manpower, which was comparatively cheap (and more reliable!) in those days. Wars.h.i.+p designers knew that a larger crew increases the ability of a s.h.i.+p to take damage and survive. Damage control is labor-intensive; and until recently, packing lots of men into a small hull was a good thing. You see this in is different from the s.h.i.+ps we have visited so far. While some systems have been updated, there is a 1960s "feel" to the structure you see. Austin-cla.s.s (LPD-4) s.h.i.+ps were designed for a crew of drafted conscripts instead of volunteer professionals. The s.h.i.+p's systems had minimal automation (which required costly a.n.a.log electronics) and maximum utilization of manpower, which was comparatively cheap (and more reliable!) in those days. Wars.h.i.+p designers knew that a larger crew increases the ability of a s.h.i.+p to take damage and survive. Damage control is labor-intensive; and until recently, packing lots of men into a small hull was a good thing. You see this in Shreveport Shreveport and her sister s.h.i.+ps. and her sister s.h.i.+ps.

Let's go to particulars. Down in the crew and pa.s.senger (one of the Navy terms for "Marine") accommodation areas, you find the bunks are smaller and a bit shorter, and personal stowage s.p.a.ce is more limited, than on Wasp Wasp or or Whidbey Island. Whidbey Island. You find almost no recreational or fitness facilities. And You find almost no recreational or fitness facilities. And Shreveport Shreveport lacks the environmental-control systems found on every new wars.h.i.+p today. In fact, her air-conditioning is even more cranky than her power plant, which can be tough on the crew and embarked Marines. During the MEU (SOC) workup in the summer of 1995, most of lacks the environmental-control systems found on every new wars.h.i.+p today. In fact, her air-conditioning is even more cranky than her power plant, which can be tough on the crew and embarked Marines. During the MEU (SOC) workup in the summer of 1995, most of Shreveport's Shreveport's air-conditioning system went out during a major heat wave. Even though the ARG was at sea, temperatures in the Marine berthing areas quickly rose to over 90deg F/32deg C with high humidity. Little could be done other than to push cold fluids to the men, and to s.h.i.+ft some smaller units over to spare berthing on air-conditioning system went out during a major heat wave. Even though the ARG was at sea, temperatures in the Marine berthing areas quickly rose to over 90deg F/32deg C with high humidity. Little could be done other than to push cold fluids to the men, and to s.h.i.+ft some smaller units over to spare berthing on Wasp Wasp and and Whidbey Island. Whidbey Island. Everyone took it in stride, but such problems sometimes occur in older vessels. Everyone took it in stride, but such problems sometimes occur in older vessels.

Pa.s.senger comfort is not why wars.h.i.+ps are built; and despite her advancing years, Shreveport Shreveport is well equipped to operate not only as an ARG flags.h.i.+p, if necessary, but as an independent amphibious unit. is well equipped to operate not only as an ARG flags.h.i.+p, if necessary, but as an independent amphibious unit. Shreveport's Shreveport's systems include: systems include: * Command and Control Capabilities-- Command and Control Capabilities--In addition to accommodations as a flags.h.i.+p, Shreveport Shreveport has full command and control facilities, although smaller and more limited than those aboard an LHD or LHD. These include a CIC, LFOC, SSES, and data links and communications gear. has full command and control facilities, although smaller and more limited than those aboard an LHD or LHD. These include a CIC, LFOC, SSES, and data links and communications gear.* Troop Capacity-- Troop Capacity--Along with her crew of 402 (plus a flag staff of 90 if carried), Shreveport Shreveport can carry up to 840 Marines. can carry up to 840 Marines.* Vehicle/Cargo Capacity-- Vehicle/Cargo Capacity--While she was designed before automated cargo handling, the Shreveport Shreveport has 14,000 ft has 14,000 ft2/1,301 m of vehicle s.p.a.ce, as well as 51,100 ft3/1,447 m for cargo. This is far more than Whidbey Whidbey Island (LSD-41), allowing a great deal of autonomy if the s.h.i.+p must operate alone. Island (LSD-41), allowing a great deal of autonomy if the s.h.i.+p must operate alone.* Transport/Off-load Capability-- Transport/Off-load Capability--Shreveport's robust aviation and transport facilities also enable her to to operate independently if required. These include a helicopter pad with two landing spots, as well as a hangar and air traffic control. The well deck can berth and support a LCAC or LCU, or up to four LCM-8s. robust aviation and transport facilities also enable her to to operate independently if required. These include a helicopter pad with two landing spots, as well as a hangar and air traffic control. The well deck can berth and support a LCAC or LCU, or up to four LCM-8s.* Cargo Handling Capacity-- Cargo Handling Capacity--Shreveport's cargo handling gear includes ten two-ton forklifts, a pair of three-ton rough terrain forklifts, three pallet conveyers, an eight-ton weapons and cargo elevator, and six cargo monorails like those aboard cargo handling gear includes ten two-ton forklifts, a pair of three-ton rough terrain forklifts, three pallet conveyers, an eight-ton weapons and cargo elevator, and six cargo monorails like those aboard Wasp. Wasp. There is also a thirty-ton deck crane for general-purpose lifting. There is also a thirty-ton deck crane for general-purpose lifting.

Shreveport can hold up her end of the amphibious task, either as part of an ARG, or all by herself, should that be required. can hold up her end of the amphibious task, either as part of an ARG, or all by herself, should that be required. Shreveport's Shreveport's armament is typical of her generation. Back in the 1960s the Navy did not expect that amphibious s.h.i.+ps would have to defend themselves; that was the job of aircraft carriers, surface escorts, and submarines. Times have changed since then, though, and armament is typical of her generation. Back in the 1960s the Navy did not expect that amphibious s.h.i.+ps would have to defend themselves; that was the job of aircraft carriers, surface escorts, and submarines. Times have changed since then, though, and Shreveport Shreveport has been fitted for basic self-defense. In addition to an SPS- 10F surface-search and SPS- 40C air-search radar, she carries the SLQ-32 (V1) ESM package, which can detect an incoming missile and attempt to confuse it with chaff or decoys from four Mk 137 SRBOC launchers. Two of the original four twin 3-in/76-mm gun mounts have been removed, and replaced with a pair of 20mm Phalanx CIWS mounts. There is none of the splinter armor that you find aboard has been fitted for basic self-defense. In addition to an SPS- 10F surface-search and SPS- 40C air-search radar, she carries the SLQ-32 (V1) ESM package, which can detect an incoming missile and attempt to confuse it with chaff or decoys from four Mk 137 SRBOC launchers. Two of the original four twin 3-in/76-mm gun mounts have been removed, and replaced with a pair of 20mm Phalanx CIWS mounts. There is none of the splinter armor that you find aboard Wasp Wasp or or Whidbey Island. Whidbey Island. This means that she could suffer severe fragmentation damage from a sea-skimming cruise missile even if the CIWS detonates the warhead before impact. This means that she could suffer severe fragmentation damage from a sea-skimming cruise missile even if the CIWS detonates the warhead before impact.

As the Shreveport Shreveport and her sisters enter the twilight of their careers, you might expect the Navy to ease up a bit and try to stretch out their remaining service life. But the LPD-4s will stay at the forefront of amphibious operations until the new LPD-17-cla.s.s a.s.sault s.h.i.+ps arrive in the early part of the 21st century. The plan is to stretch the life of the cla.s.s from the normal thirty years to roughly forty to fifty years! This will demand improvements to environmental systems, some communications, a fiber-optical data network, and perhaps even the Cooperative Engagement System designed into the LPD-17. These will be difficult to fund in the current budget environment. But the LPD-4s are a national a.s.set, and you can expect General Krulak to fight like a "big dog" to ensure these venerable s.h.i.+ps stay ready to land Marines. and her sisters enter the twilight of their careers, you might expect the Navy to ease up a bit and try to stretch out their remaining service life. But the LPD-4s will stay at the forefront of amphibious operations until the new LPD-17-cla.s.s a.s.sault s.h.i.+ps arrive in the early part of the 21st century. The plan is to stretch the life of the cla.s.s from the normal thirty years to roughly forty to fifty years! This will demand improvements to environmental systems, some communications, a fiber-optical data network, and perhaps even the Cooperative Engagement System designed into the LPD-17. These will be difficult to fund in the current budget environment. But the LPD-4s are a national a.s.set, and you can expect General Krulak to fight like a "big dog" to ensure these venerable s.h.i.+ps stay ready to land Marines.

Landing Craft Ever since Stone Age men built the first raft to raid the neighbors downstream, small boats have been essential to amphibious operations. Captains of amphibs do not like to bring their large and sometimes vulnerable vessels within range of enemy artillery as they close a hostile sh.o.r.e. After the retirement of the last LST-1179-cla.s.s s.h.i.+ps, the option of running an ocean-going amphib up onto a beach (and getting her off again) will be gone forever. Given the dangers from mines, missiles, and guns, this is probably no great loss to our capabilities.

The amphibious equivalent of a delivery truck is the landing craft. As noted earlier, the development of landing craft during World War II was one of the key technologies that made amphibious warfare possible. Today, the Navy's landing craft range from the high-tech LCAC (Landing Craft, Air Cus.h.i.+oned) to conventional Landing Craft, Utility (LCU) and Landing Craft, Medium (LCM). While older craft are on their way out, they still provide amphibious planners with a range of delivery options. This is critical as the Navy and Marine Corps wait for long-delayed systems like the AAAV and MV-22B Osprey to enter service in the early 21st Century. The older landing craft provide vital support to Maritime Prepositioning Force (MPF) units for contingency and follow-on forces. Let's take a look at these delivery vans. Other than the Marines themselves, nothing is closer to the tip of the amphibious spear.

Landing Craft, Air Cus.h.i.+oned (LCAC) When you first see one on its concrete pad at Little Creek, Virginia, it looks like a pile of Leggo blocks on a flattened inner tube. It is hard to believe that such an odd machine changed the face of amphibious warfare. When they first appeared in the late 1930s, landing craft were never called "revolutionary" or "world shaking." But the Navy's introduction of the Landing Craft, Air Cus.h.i.+oned (LCAC) in the 1980s produced the biggest change in amphibious doctrine since the helicopter thirty years earlier. Pretty impressive for something that looks like a prop from a low-budget science fiction movie. Let's look LCAC over, and see for ourselves.

[image]

Landing Craft, Air Cus.h.i.+oned (LCACs) of Amphibious Craft Unit Four (ACU-4) operate during a 26th MEU (SOC) exercise in Tunisia in 1995.

OFFICIAL U.S. MARINE CORPS PHOTO.

Amphibious planners always want to carry more payload, farther and faster. They dream of a.s.sault craft that don't need pleasant stretches of gently graded beach for landing zones. Conventional landing craft are limited to landing under optimal tidal and beach conditions--which means they have access to only 17% of the world's coastline. Traditional flat-bottomed a.s.sault boats severely restrict a planner's options. What was needed was new technology that did not require pus.h.i.+ng a boxy hull through the water. The requirement was for a magic carpet, to whisk a seventy-ton battle tank across the water to the beach, and even inland.

The solution they found was a surface-effect vehicle: the hovercraft. A hovercraft floats on a cus.h.i.+on of air contained by a rubber skirt. Like a puck in an air hockey game, it barely touches the surface, but "floats" on the boundary interface. Riding a virtually frictionless layer of air, it needs relatively little thrust to move and maneuver. Hovercraft have great agility and speed, and they can carry a good payload with efficiency and economy. They are also relatively immune to rough weather and high seas. And they transition easily from water to ground, allowing the same craft to transport payloads some distance inland. Civilian hovercraft serve as high-speed ferryboats across the English Channel, and between Hong Kong and Macao in the Far East.

The Soviet Union, with its poor road network and vast marshlands, led the world in developing and deploying military hovercraft. During the Cold War, it built several types of amphibious a.s.sault hovercraft for the Northern, Baltic, and Black Sea fleets. Their planned targets were rocky coasts where conventional landing craft have little or no utility. But with hovercraft able to cross something like 70% of the worlds coastlines (versus 17% for conventional landing craft), they became a natural choice for Soviet Naval Infantry. Large troop- and vehicle-carrying hovercraft, known by NATO reporting names like Aist Aist ("Stork"), ("Stork"), Lebed Lebed ("Swan"), and ("Swan"), and Pomornik Pomornik ("Skua"), could reach speeds up to 70 kt/128 kph, carrying heavy tanks, artillery, and troops. Technical intelligence reports made Western military forces sit up and take notice. ("Skua"), could reach speeds up to 70 kt/128 kph, carrying heavy tanks, artillery, and troops. Technical intelligence reports made Western military forces sit up and take notice.

Early Western hovercraft were smaller, like the British-designed SR.N5 (called the PACV-series, when built by Bell for U.S. service), carrying an infantry squad or platoon. Field trials included combat deployments to Vietnam and Malaysia, with mixed results. The plus side was their speed and agility across rivers, swamps, and bays. The downside was vulnerability, especially their rubber skirts and propulsion systems. Despite this, Great Britain and Iran (under the last Shah) purchased many patrol hovercraft. Several factors kept hovercraft from entering Navy service as quickly--mainly money. The war in Vietnam was a huge financial drain in the 1960s and 1970s. The Navy and Marine Corps only began developing an amphibious hovercraft in the 1970s.

In late 1976 the Navy formalized a requirement and opened the compet.i.tion for a Landing Craft, Air Cus.h.i.+oned (LCAC). Two contractors, Aerojet-General and Bell Aeros.p.a.ce (now Bell-Textron Land-Marine Systems in New Orleans, Louisiana), designed and built prototypes in the hope of winning a production contract for a planned fleet of over one hundred LCACs. The requirement included specifications for payload (up to 150,000 1b/68,182 kg), speed (greater than 50 kt/ 91 kph), and range (up to 200 nm/365 km at cruising speed). The Aerojet-General prototype was called JEFF-A; the Bell entry was JEFF-B. They looked similar when placed side by side. The compet.i.tion was fierce, with both designs showing advantages and faults. In the end, Bell's JEFF-B design won, entering production as the Navy's new LCAC. JEFF-B's shorter length (87 ft/26.5 m versus 100 ft/30.5 m for the JEFF-A) and lower displacement (160 tons versus 162.5 tons) were decisive factors. In 1982, the Navy issued the first production contract for three LCACs. First delivery came in 1984, followed by s.h.i.+p compatibility trials. Lockheed s.h.i.+pbuilding (later acquired by Avondale s.h.i.+pbuilding) was certified as a second-source contractor, but Bell-Textron has built the majority of the craft.

By the late 1980s, several dozen LCACs were in service with the Navy, aboard a dozen amphibious s.h.i.+ps in the Pacific and Atlantic fleets. Seventeen LCACs served on six LSDs during Desert s.h.i.+eld and Desert Storm, providing much of the lift during those operations. Though they did not conduct any a.s.sault landings, the amphibious forces offsh.o.r.e tied down over seven Iraqi divisions in coastal defenses around Kuwait City. The LCACs maintained a 100% availability rate throughout nine months of operations in the Persian Gulf, giving ARG commanders great confidence in their reliability. Since that time, the fleet has s.h.i.+fted the bulk of landing craft duty to the LCACs. In humanitarian and peacekeeping operations in Bangladesh, Haiti, and Somalia, and regular operations in ARGs, the LCACs again proved their worth. The total force of 91 LCACs was nearly complete by early 1996. More were planned, but the Navy's drawdown cut the original target of 107 units. The force of 91 LCACs is a national treasure which is being used hard.

To understand the LCACs, you need to visit one of two bases constructed to service them. I visited the LCAC facility at the Naval Amphibious Base at Little Creek, near Norfolk, Virginia. This is the home of a.s.sault Craft Unit (ACU) 4, the core unit for Atlantic Fleet-based LCACs. A similar facility services ACU 5 (the Pacific Fleet unit) at Camp Pendleton, California. ACU 4 operates roughly forty LCACs, providing detachments of hovercraft to Atlantic Fleet amphibious s.h.i.+ps. The size of these detachments varies according to s.h.i.+p type. The following table summarizes the LCAC capacity of various s.h.i.+ps: [image]

Given the mix of s.h.i.+ps within an ARG, a MEU (SOC) commander might have between six and nine LCACs in his well decks. That is a lot of capability to project Marines and firepower in just a few small packages. The ARG commander must manage this handful of LCACs carefully.

As you walk up to an LCAC on the ramp at Little Creek, the first thing you notice is that it looks much more like an aircraft or s.p.a.cecraft than a wars.h.i.+p. Much of the design for the LCAC was based on aircraft structures and technology to reduce weight and maximize payload. The LCAC is basically a platform with lift fans underneath, and twin deckhouses and engines along the sides. There are ramps at both ends, and a large rubber skirt running around the sides. Most of the structure is aluminum alloy, with some ceramic splinter armor. LCAC has to be able to survive hits when it works insh.o.r.e. The threats range from artillery to anti-tank guided missiles. The four Avco-Lycoming TF-40B gas-turbine power plants provide a total of 12,444 shp/11,800 kw, and are mounted in pairs. Two engines drive the four 5.25-ft/1.6-m-diameter lift fans. The other pair drive the two 11.75-ft/3.6-m-diameter propulsion fans. Steering is done with variable-pitch propellers, aerodynamic rudders, and a pair of rotatable bow thruster nozzles. With a nominal load of fuel and a sixty-ton payload, LCAC can sustain up to 50 kt/91 kph in seastate 2 (a light chop) for a range of up to 328 nm/607 km. By cutting the payload, longer ranges can be obtained.

As you walk up the bow ramp, you enter a large (67-by-27-ft/20.4-by-8.2 m) cargo stowage area. Cargo tie-down points stud the decking, and there is a decided "crown" (or hump) to the deck to drain off any seawater. A nominal load of 119,980 1b/54,421 kg can be spread over 1,809.5 ft2/168.1 m2 of s.p.a.ce. If necessary, this can be raised to an overload of 149,978 lb/68,027 kg as long as the seastate is moderate (the pounding of the waves in a high seastate can cause structural damage). Along with the deck cargo, there is room in the deckhouses for twenty-three pa.s.sengers. Pa.s.senger accommodations are decidedly austere and very noisy when the LCAC is underway. of s.p.a.ce. If necessary, this can be raised to an overload of 149,978 lb/68,027 kg as long as the seastate is moderate (the pounding of the waves in a high seastate can cause structural damage). Along with the deck cargo, there is room in the deckhouses for twenty-three pa.s.sengers. Pa.s.senger accommodations are decidedly austere and very noisy when the LCAC is underway.

On the starboard side is the control cab, where the crew of five is located. This includes the LCAC commander, pilot, engineer, and navigator. U.S. Navy landing craft are commanded by a chief petty officer instead of a commissioned officer. This tends to make life aboard the landing craft a bit more relaxed and earthy than what you find aboard large amphibs; but don't think the enlisted crews of landing craft are lax about their responsibilities. On the contrary, they are highly professional, and over the last five decades, have won their share of Medals of Honor and Navy Crosses. Accommodations on the LCACs are spartan, with few of the "homey" amenities that we would find in the LCUs. Crews live on-board the s.h.i.+ps where they are based, since LCACs lack galley and berthing facilities.

The control cab is laid out like an aircraft c.o.c.kpit, which makes sense when you consider that an LCAC is more an aircraft than a surface craft. In fact, LCAC missions are listed on the daily ARG/MEU (SOC) air tasking order, to avoid interference with flight operations by helicopters and V/STOL aircraft. The control stations for the navigator, engineer, and pilot are laid out left to right. In addition to the throttle controls for the four TF-40B gas-turbine engines, there is a helm control station with instruments to a.s.sist in steering and navigation. These include a modified LN-66 navigation radar (to detect surface targets and land ma.s.ses); an inertial system, known as the Att.i.tude Heading and Reference Unit (AHRU); and a speedometer known as the High-Speed Velocity Log (HSVL). Like the Doppler sensing systems used on helicopters, described in Armored in Armored Cav, these sensors determine position, heading, and speed. A GPS receiver feeds into both the AHRU and HSVL systems, which makes pinpoint, split-second accurate landing possible for the first time. Now, all of this data is worthless if you cannot share it over a secure and robust communications system. The LCACs are fitted with a variety of VHF, UHF/VHF, HF, and FM transceivers, ranging from Motorola "Handy-Talkies" to fully encrypted digital radio systems. Cav, these sensors determine position, heading, and speed. A GPS receiver feeds into both the AHRU and HSVL systems, which makes pinpoint, split-second accurate landing possible for the first time. Now, all of this data is worthless if you cannot share it over a secure and robust communications system. The LCACs are fitted with a variety of VHF, UHF/VHF, HF, and FM transceivers, ranging from Motorola "Handy-Talkies" to fully encrypted digital radio systems.

The LCAC's role makes good communications a mission-critical feature. The LCAC is much faster than any previous landing craft. Speeds of up to 50+ kt/91 + kph are common, depending on load and seastate. This capability means that the big amphibious s.h.i.+ps that operate LCACs no longer need to stand a few thousand yards/meters off of an enemy coastline, vulnerable to enemy fire. In fact, LCAC-EQUIPPED s.h.i.+ps can stay up to 50 nm/91 km offsh.o.r.e and still be able to put a wave of loaded LCACs onto a beach every three hours. This three-hour cycle time is the normal turnaround used by Navy and Marine planners in landing operations. It a.s.sumes an hour each way for transit time, plus a half hour on each end for loading and unloading. This is what "standoff" really means, and LCAC is the first of three new systems (LCAC, the MV-22B, and the AAAV) that makes standoff amphibious a.s.sault possible.

You may wonder why so many navigational systems are necessary. If you have ever tried to navigate a boat 50 nm/91 km offsh.o.r.e, you would understand! As you approach a coastline, the reference points you use to determine your course and position are slow to appear, and even easier to miss. Now add in fog, rain, spray, darkness, currents, and uncharted rocks. Getting lost at sea is easy! History is replete with stories of amphibious landings which hit the wrong beach, even when the right one was in sight from the amphibious s.h.i.+ps a few thousand yards away. Now, just imagine what kinds of errors are possible from 50 nm/91 km out!

The GPS receiver, with positional accuracy of a few yards/meters and timing accuracy within milliseconds, is the most valuable navigational system for keeping LCAC on course and on time. But a new system is coming on-line to a.s.sist that. Known as the Amphibious a.s.sault Direction System (AN/KSQ-1), it ties every s.h.i.+p, aircraft, and landing craft in an ARG/MEU (SOC) into a common network, feeding positional data from each unit's...o...b..ard GPS system. This lets the LFOC and CIC monitor real-time positional, heading, and velocity information on every friendly unit in the area. This system should eliminate many of the coordination problems inherent to amphibious operations.

Riding aboard an LCAC is different from any other boating experience you will ever have. First, the entire LCAC is b.u.t.toned up and the bow and stern ramps raised. When the turbine engines start, the noise is tremendous, and safety rules prohibit any exposed personnel on deck during transit. Even inside the deckhouses, earplugs and/or hearing protection is a necessity to make the turbine whine endurable. To back out of the well deck of a s.h.i.+p like Wasp Wasp or or Whidbey Island, Whidbey Island, the pilot reverses the forward maneuvering thrustors to ease out. One advantage of the LCAC over conventional landing craft like the LCU or LCM is that the mother s.h.i.+p's well deck does not have to be "flooded down." Because of their ability to "climb" over obstacles up to 4 ft/ 1.2 m high, the LCAC can easily cross the lowered stern gate of an LHD, LHA, LSD, or LPD, simplifying operations for the s.h.i.+p's crew. This also reduces the seawater spray thrown up by the LCACs. This salt spray gets into nooks and crannies in the well deck overheads, causing corrosion that requires a lot of labor to repair. In fact, NAVSEA has plans for future docks.h.i.+ps with "dry" well decks specifically designed for LCAC-type landing craft. Meanwhile, the Navy is experimenting with new-corrosion control techniques, including flame-sprayed coatings to prevent rust. the pilot reverses the forward maneuvering thrustors to ease out. One advantage of the LCAC over conventional landing craft like the LCU or LCM is that the mother s.h.i.+p's well deck does not have to be "flooded down." Because of their ability to "climb" over obstacles up to 4 ft/ 1.2 m high, the LCAC can easily cross the lowered stern gate of an LHD, LHA, LSD, or LPD, simplifying operations for the s.h.i.+p's crew. This also reduces the seawater spray thrown up by the LCACs. This salt spray gets into nooks and crannies in the well deck overheads, causing corrosion that requires a lot of labor to repair. In fact, NAVSEA has plans for future docks.h.i.+ps with "dry" well decks specifically designed for LCAC-type landing craft. Meanwhile, the Navy is experimenting with new-corrosion control techniques, including flame-sprayed coatings to prevent rust.

Once clear of the well deck, the pilot usually takes the craft to a holding/ a.s.sembly area where it waits for any other LCACs being launched. If necessary in a "hot" area, the LCAC(s) pick up an escort of AH-1W Cobra attack helicopters. Now the pilot turns the LCAC to its desired heading, and takes off. The acceleration is smooth and rapid, and you have the feeling of riding on a magic carpet, or perhaps a really fast vacuum cleaner! While there is a fair amount of vibration, it is not the pounding that you feel in a conventional landing craft on a rough sea. The lift air flowing under the skirt tends to smooth out the wave action, making transits under all but the worst conditions quite tolerable. Speeds of 40 to 50 kt/73.2 to 91.4 kph can easily be maintained except for handing a maximum (sixty-ton-plus) load in heavy seas. For the pilot, the LCAC is easy to handle, though it tends to sideslip in a hard turn. This is because there is no keel or rudder to "bite" into the water to hold it steady. The LCAC is actually "flying" above the water, and the sensation is not unlike riding in a low-flying helicopter. The LCAC is quite maneuverable at all speed ranges. And it is stable and easy to handle, even at slow speeds in confined areas like a well deck or narrow rivers or swamps.

During transit, the navigator constantly pa.s.ses course corrections and speed recommendations to the pilot, so that they will hit the target area accurately and on time. This notion that a landing craft can transit 50 nm/91 km or more and arrive on time at a pre-planned point is still a source of wonder to old amphibious warfare veterans. In fact, as noted earlier, the ability of beachmasters of the Navy's beach control teams to receive troops, vehicles, and cargo has not kept up with the ability of s.h.i.+ps to off-load them, even from over the horizon. Even the introduction of computerized bar-code tracking linked to satellite communication systems has not solved the traffic jams that develop on a busy beach. This is one reason why LCACs don't always stop at the surf-line to dump their cargo. The LCAC's capability to transit from water to land, and continue inland for a distance, is still being explored. For example, with a pre-surveyed GPS navigational point, an LCAC might unload an artillery battery several thousand yards/meters inland, far away from the maddening traffic jam of the beach. Such concepts are being integrated into the doctrine of Marine amphibious units right now.

As you approach the sh.o.r.eline, the beach comes up fast, and there is the feeling of an impending crash into a oncoming wall. Then the pilot begins to r.e.t.a.r.d the throttles a bit and decides where to transit onto the beach. In fact, when you actually "hit" dry land, the feeling is like going up the ramp of a parking garage. The pilot then follows the instructions of the beach control party on where to stop and unload. The lift fans are killed, the skirt deflates, and the LCAC is ready to disembark its cargo. Once the bow and/or stern ramps are lowered, vehicles and troops can off-load in just a minute or two. For palletized cargo or containers, it takes a bit longer, as a forklift or palletized lifter vehicle is needed to unload the cargo deck. Unloading completed, the crew b.u.t.tons up, fires up the engines, and heads back to the mother s.h.i.+p for another load. In the case of a LHD or LSD where two or more LCAC may be vying for s.p.a.ce in a well deck, the craft are parked nose to tail. Then, with the bow and stern ramps lowered, vehicles drive through one LCACs to reach the other one.

While the LCAC has done quite well in its first decade of service, don't think that hauling cargo, vehicles, and Marines is all that the Navy wants to do with it. Concepts to expand the options for LCAC include increased personnel capacity, using a cargo deck pa.s.senger module. LCAC is now limited to just 23 pa.s.sengers in the deckhouse s.p.a.ces, but the module can carry up to 180 personnel (plus the 23 in the deckhouse) per trip. Configured for medical evacuation, the same module might carry up to 50 litter cases per trip, as well as 23 walking wounded in the deckhouse. This is important to the Marines, given the "golden hour" of combat trauma cases. Survival rates for wounded personnel are directly related to how quickly they reach medical facilities aboard the LHD/LHD or LPD. The Navy has ordered a number of these modules, and they should be coming into the force soon.

Another use for LCACs is in mine warfare. The Navy has funded demonstrations of LCACs equipped to both lay and sweep underwater mines, as well as a rocket propelled system that throws an explosive mine-clearing charge over a beach landing zone from offsh.o.r.e. There have also been studies of using the LCAC as a gunboat to support landing operations. Though the LCACs are unarmed (mounts for three machine guns are normally not used), there are concepts for mounting 20mm and 25mm cannons. The Marines have demonstrated the ability to fire vehicle mounted weapons such as the LAV's 25mm Bushmaster cannon and the 120mm gun on a M-1A1 tank from landing craft.

With only ninety-one LCACs either delivered or under contract, it is likely that the Navy and Marines will jealously guard them for their primary mission as s.h.i.+p-to-sh.o.r.e delivery systems. In this role it is not, of course, ideal (like all designs, it is a set of engineering compromises). For one thing, it is more vulnerable than conventional landing craft to enemy fire, but has the speed and maneuverability to avoid many threats. And the LCAC cannot handle extreme seastates as well as a conventional landing craft like the LCU or LCM, but it can land cargo under a wider variety of coastal conditions. Still, don't get the idea that LCACs are not tough. One unit, LCAC-42 (landing craft have only pennant numbers, not names), has survived two major incidents, and is still in service. It hit a protruding coral head sideways during one exercise, and struck a large navigation buoy on another, but got off with only minor damage and is still hauling for the Pacific Fleet. In over ten years of LCAC service, the U.S. Navy has yet to lose even one in operations. Plan on seeing LCACs around for a long time to come. A SLEP (Service Life Extension Program) will extend the planned twenty-year service life of the LCAC fleet to a full thirty years. Next-generation landing craft will be air-cus.h.i.+oned. Scaled-down designs for LCM-SIZED LCACs are being considered as general-purpose deliver platforms for the ARGs of the mid-21st century. Not bad for a giant air hockey puck.

Landing Craft, Utility (LCU) It might surprise you that in an era of satellite navigation and computerized logistics, a large percentage of landing craft used by the Navy and Marines are virtually identical to World War II types. Many such craft will continue to serve well into the 21st century. Currently, the largest of these is the Landing Craft, Utility (LCU). In fact, the LCU is the largest Navy vessel that is not commanded by an officer. The LCU is a s.h.i.+p, s.h.i.+p, with full crew accommodations (galley, berthing, heads, etc.) for its crew often (fourteen in wartime). It has enough range (up to 1,200 nm/2,195 km at economical speeds) to transit the Mediterranean or Baltic Seas in even the worst weather. LCUs are the heavy haulers among landing craft, in the twilight of their years, but still doing a vital job. Let's have a look. with full crew accommodations (galley, berthing, heads, etc.) for its crew often (fourteen in wartime). It has enough range (up to 1,200 nm/2,195 km at economical speeds) to transit the Mediterranean or Baltic Seas in even the worst weather. LCUs are the heavy haulers among landing craft, in the twilight of their years, but still doing a vital job. Let's have a look.

A Landing Craft, Utility (LCU) of a.s.sault Craft Unit Two (ACU-2) leaves Cadiz Harbor on February 16th, 1996, to mate up with the USS Whidbey Island Whidbey Island (LSD-41) for the homeward leg of its Mediterranean 1995/96 cruise. (LSD-41) for the homeward leg of its Mediterranean 1995/96 cruise. JOHN D. GRESHAM JOHN D. GRESHAM [image]

Like other conventional landing craft, the LCU design dates back to the 1940s. The idea behind the LCU was simple. Take the largest possible cargo/vehicle load possible, deliver it to and from a hostile sh.o.r.e, and then return to a mother s.h.i.+p-usually one of the first-generation LSDs. The LCU can carry up to 180 tons of vehicles, troops, and cargo at speeds approaching 12 kt/22 kph in virtually any seastate or weather, and deliver them to a "hot" sh.o.r.eline. It is a big, brutish sort of craft, with none of the LCAC's futuristic look. In fact, the beast looks like it could seriously hurt a bigger vessel by ramming (this is no joke; it probably could!). These cla.s.sic landing craft, loved by their crews and prized by the ARG and MEU (SOC) commanders, are still finding new ways to serve.

Like the LCAC, the LCU is a "double-ended" design, with ramps at both ends allowing vehicles to load by dr