The Creation of Narrative in Tabletop Role-Playing Games Part 3

The next category of speech that Cook-Gumperz (1992) refers to as narrative planning speech (p. 188) is essential both to the childrenas makebelieve games and D&D. While planning for the three-year-old girls consisted of deciding who would use what doll and the like, adult games involve much more complex planning. Often this form of talk involves complex negotiation of the game rules. This type of talk can also be seen in the above transcript. The dice rolls that determine Garethas success as a musician are based on the charisma ability score. According to the official game rules, charisma is not affected by drinking (Cook, 2002). Mary sees that logically playing a musical instrument would also involve dexterity, an ability that is affected by intoxication. Thus, she challenges this rule, and the group negotiates it.

Although Cook-Gumperz (1992) includes narrative planning speech as a subdivision of off-record speech, my model places it above off-record speech on the narrativity scale because in this type of discourse the players are no longer a pa.s.sive audience, but actively involved in planning how the game will progress. This level still exists outside the narrative in the AW but creates a bridge between the actual world and the game world through its discussion of gaming tactics. However, just as everything discussed in this frame does not become a part of the narrative, every idea posed in this frame does not become a move in the game.

Although the social frame affects the narrative, the final story that is created from the role-playing gaming session does not usually reflect this stage of thought. A several-hour debate over what action to take next and the rules surrounding the action is reduced to one line in the write-up of the orc adventure: aWe discussed amongst ourselves the political repercussions of the situation and decided that if at all possible it would be best for humans to stay out of this orcish war.a The players were involved in a complex discussion of the storyworld here, yet the discussion did not take place in the storyworld. Likewise, narrative planning speech is not the actual oral narrative, but instead stalls this narrative while details are negotiated between the players.

The Game Frame.

Like the social frame, the game frame operates in the actual world in that the players are sitting in this reality face-to-face playing the game. However, a new sort of logic comes into play in the game framea"the logic that governs the rules of the game itself. Because the make-believe games Cook-Gumperz (1992) studied did not involve the type of complex game mechanics seen in D&D, she does not include a type of speech for actions such as statements of intention or dice rolls, both of which are crucial to the game frame of TRPGs. The game frame is governed by the rules of the game and is composed of moves in the game. It thus accesses another possible worlda"that of the gamea"which is governed by its own logic separate from both the logic of the AW and the narrative world.

The transcript in the previous section shows how game logic may be different from logic in either the AW or the narrative world. Mary a.s.serts that it is not logical to be able to perform a musical instrument at full capacity while intoxicated in either the AW or the narrative world. However, the game logic, governed by the game rules, maintains that this is fully possible. The partic.i.p.ants go on to negotiate how this logic of the game syncs up with logic in the AW and the APW; yet the game logic exists as a system of its own. In fact, gamers often joke about the way that game logic can conflict with logic in the AW and APW. When a character goes up a level, he or she gains additional abilities. Yet, these abilities are usually not a direct consequence of anything in the narrative world. A rogue may suddenly be able to pick locks better even when he or she has been adventuring in the forest far from any chance to practice lock picking technique. This increase in skill makes logical sense within the logic of the game world rather than the narrative world and thus is accepted by most players.

I identify two types of talk in the game frame: narrative suggestions and dice rolls. Narrative suggestions involve statements of intention in which the player describes the actions his or her character attempts, which may or may not involve dice rolling. Like narrative planning speech, narrative suggestions have a greater effect on the TAW than off-record speech because actions taken within the game cause what happens next in the story. The main difference between narrative planning speech and narrative suggestion is that narrative planning speech often involves a good deal of negotiation and discussion of ideas that may or may not end up being followed by the players. The group may discuss whether or not to attack the orcs, for example, and if they attack how to orchestrate that attack. This discussion of tactics is not taken seriously as a narrative suggestion until it is articulated in the game frame. A player may suggest that Alexas character, David, attempt to entangle the orcs before attacking, but until he states, aOk. I try to entangle the orcsa or aI cast the spell entangle on the orcs,a this speech does not const.i.tute an action in the game world.

In my observations, players use either future tense or present tense when stating the actions of their characters. Lacy (2006) determines the present tense is used most frequently in TRPGs. He states that the use of present tense serves to mark are-orientating to the RPG framea (Lacy, 2006, p. 64). Although further linguistic study is necessary, the use of tense initially seems like a way to distinguish between narrative planning speech and a narrative suggestion. The use of present tense may also serve to show how certain a player is of the success of their suggestion, in terms of it being incorporated into the narrative frame. Observe the tense usage in the following transcript from the Sorpraedor campaign. In this scene, Maryas bard (Gareth) tells us about her upcoming gig at the Foppish Wererat tavern.

At the beginning of this transcript, we see the group going back and forth both planning what is next and stating their actions. Mark states, in present tense, that he is going with Mary. However, I state in future tense that I will go with Mary. Mary seems to be in the frame of planning as well as she expresses uncertainty over whether or not this part of the story is one that the group as a whole would like to pursue or whether it is something for her character to do alone. When we reach line 12, however, there is a clear move to narrative suggestion. Mark no longer states his individual intent, but speaks for the party and their decided action: aWe go clubbing.a The DM then proceeds with narrative speech describing the journey to the Foppish Wererat. Because going aclubbinga is not the sort of thing that requires a dice role to confirm, this narrative suggestion skips over this stage and becomes a part of the narrative.

If dice rolling is necessary, the player moves to that level on the chart. Dice rolling acts are higher in their degree of narrativity because once the dice are rolled, there is usually no going back to the point of suggestion. A player will call out the dice rolled, such as aI got a 23,a and the DM will respond by narrating the action within the narrative itself, aYou hit the orc.a A narrative suggestion may lead to a dice roll or may be overturned by the DM. Alex may say, aI cast the spell entangle on the orcsa as a narrative suggestion, but the DM may state, aYour character doesnat know that spell,a thus preventing this narrative suggestion from taking root in the narrative frame. More likely, however, the DM would state, aRoll the dice to see if you hit.a At this point the success or failure of the dice roll will then determine what happens in the narrative.

The Narrative Frame.

Once the players begin to discuss things in-game as characters, they begin to compose the textual world. The narrative frame differs from the game frame because it involves the actual construction of the textual world. It thus possesses the greatest level of narrativity. This frame is made up of in-character speech and narrative speech. Cook-Gumperz (1992) refers to moments when the player takes on the voice of the character as ain-character speecha (p. 184). In addition to in-character speech, the TAW consists of narrative and descriptive utterances spoken by the DM. CookGumperz (1992) observed similar types of speech in the childrenas games. Instances when the children actually narrated the story they were creating are examples of anarrative speech.a Cook-Gumperz (1992) found that when the children explained events as if they were telling a story, they maintained a areading tonea; an even tone with careful word enunciation (p. 184). I also observed this type of tone when the DM narrated the action of the D&D adventure. At these times, the DM is often granted a longer turn of talk, which is characteristic of narrative speech. In the case of a pre-written module, the DM may literally be reading as certain pa.s.sages in these adventures are often set aside for the DM to read directly to the players. As mentioned in the previous chapter, these accounts can also contain description, such as when the DM described the scene at Blaze Arrow. However, even these descriptive scenes can be seen as temporally motivated. The description of Blaze Arrow tells the story of the battle that happened before the party arrived. Pa.s.sages like this both describe the scene and advance the aplota of the story.

In-character speech and narrative speech possess the highest levels of narrativity because they are the TAW formed by the oral discourse of the gaming session. However, in-character speech is one level below narrative speech because it involves both the DM and the players and is thus always subject to the authoritative power of the DM (who may retract it). For example, when Whisper went to open the cursed scroll tube, Nick made a statement in-character as Fletch, saying, aNo, donat do that!a However, the DM ruled that Whisperas action took place so quickly and by such surprise that the characters did not have time to react and thus Fletchas speech never reached the TAW of the narrative. However, unless directly countermanded by the DM in this way, in-character speech becomes a part of the TAW and does not need to be re-stated when the DM narrates the action.

While it may seem that narrative speech is only available to the DM, there are instances where players may also engage in it. When a player is fairly certain that an action will not require a dice role, he or she will go ahead and narrate it more directly. Similarly, narrative suggestions that go unchallenged by the DM or do not need dice rolls to determine their success or failure may rise to the level of narrative speech. However, these are below narrative speech by the DM on my model because it is the DM that ultimately controls whether playersa narration becomes a part of the TAW. A player may declare, aI order some ale at the tavern.a This sort of suggestion does not usually require a dice roll and would become narrative speech. Thus, this type of speech may function as both a narrative suggestion and narrative speech. However, there might be special circ.u.mstances in which the DM would determine that a dice roll is needed. If the bartender had a grudge against this particular character and was ignoring him, the DM might ask that player to roll for diplomacy to see if he or she is able to get the attention of his unwilling host. Thus, it is ulti mately the DM that determines whether a narrative suggestion stands as narrative speech or whether the action must be further negotiated before entering the TAW.6 In TRPGs, the amount of in-character speech varies depending on the style of play that the group of gamers prefers to engage in. In general, the Sorpraedor campaign does not involve a lot of in-character speech; however, there were several notable instances of it during the orc adventure. When Cuthalion negotiated with Grumbach, Mark delivered an incharacter speech as Cuthalion7 that was so eloquent, the DM granted him extra experience points8 for it. The DM also uses in-character speech when representing another character in the story. For example, after Cuthalionas speech, the DM responded in-character as Grumbach. In his linguist a.n.a.lysis of TRPGs, Ken Lacy (2006) finds that players often mark speech as in-character by prefacing it aquotative markings,a or statement such as aI saya (p. 67). I also found this to be true of in-character speech. Even when direct quotative markings were not present, a change in intonation marked in-character speech. However, because the game world includes its own logic system, these devices are not always necessary to show when a character versus a player is being referred to.

Because narrative speech creates the TAW, it represents the top level of my model with the highest degree of narrativity. Narrative speech is most often spoken by the DM. If the DM is describing a scene, such as the scene upon entering Blaze Arrow or the Temple of Elemental Evil, the present tense may be employed to give the players a sense of temporal immersion, or if the DM is responding directly to the narrative suggestions, he or she may declare that the action in question was a success in past tense. The use of past tense here is different from the prevalence of present tense during the majority of the game. Also, as Lacy (2006) notes, the DMas speech is more often in third person rather than first person (p. 66).

The following transcript takes place just after the previous transcript as the players meet up with KaaGoth at the Foppish Wererat. It ill.u.s.trates some of the linguistic differences between players and DMs.

Note here that the DM refers to the non-player character in third person, stating aheas doing the same.a Because the DM runs multiple characters, he remains far more removed from those characters than do the players.9 In contrast, Mary refers to her character Gareth in first person, even when the separation between character and player could be potentially confusing. In fact, in line 34, the aIa that aa.s.sumesa is Mary reacting in the actual world to the narrative world. She a.s.sumes, but needs the DMas confirmation, that certain events took place in the narrative. The aIa that has been playing songs is Gareth, the character in the narrative world. Ultimately there is not room for confusion here because it does not make sense in the logic of the narrative world that Gareth would be wondering whether or not he had performed certain actions, and it does not make sense in the actual world that Mary has been playing songs. Possible-world theory, then, helps to explain the lack of traditional linguistic markers when moving in and out of character.

In this example, also note the use of in-character speech in lines 27a"28. This speech is preceded by a change in intonation. Aside from the dice roll in line 32, which Mary makes to determine how successful Gareth is at joining in the music, this transcript takes place mainly in the narrative frame. Together, Mary and the DM narrate the scene in the Foppish Wererat that the rest of the party observes. However, at many times narrative speech may be a long narration by the DM alone.

In TRPGs, multiple worlds exist, but the world presented in the DMas narrative speech directly creates the storyworld. It is this level that possesses full narrativity. Because of this level, players feel as though they are immersed in a story, even as they continually s.h.i.+ft between frames and worlds. This sense of being immersed in a narrative world is one of the main reasons for playing TRPGs. The narrative speech frame may be the least interactive of the levels in my model, particularly when it involves only the speech of the DM. However, the significance of the narrative speech frame is directly impacted by the other levels of the model. Thus, interactivity and immersion go hand-in-hand in the TRPG.

Because playersa actions in the game frame influence the narrative frame, their level of immersion in the narrative frame is directly related to their level of immersion in other frames. The sense a narrative experience of the TRPG comes not from one frame, but from all three frames; and all three frames affect the narrative to varying degrees. Off-record speech is least likely to affect the narrative; this is particularly true of off-record speech that serves only as a bond within the social sphere. Yet, if this social sphere collapses, so does the narrative sphere. If players do not return to the game because they do not fit in the social setting, their characters may end up with their heads thrown into a camp as a warning, as with the twins Mirador and Mardowin. All the frames are necessary for an enjoyable narrative experience. We need not see all levels of the TRPG as narratives in order to see that this is, as Cook-Gumprez (1992) calls make-believe, a anarrative game.a

6.

Immersion in the TRPG.

I saw David take the amulet down the pa.s.sageway toward the drow, convinced that he meant to betray us. I had given it to him in good faith, to show that I could be trusted, and he had outright stolen it. The party was divided; they scattered. I came across Cuthalionas paralyzed body, and while searching for a healing potion, I saw it. Somehow he had the amulet. After all that! I took the powerful magic item back, forced some magic healing liquid down the elfas throat, and quickly ran off. I had always thought Cuthalion understood, but to find him with the amuleta"I wiped away a teara"it seemed I had no friends left. After wandering alone in the woods, I stumbled across an abandoned cottage and stopped to sleep, to rest, to think...

When we turn to look at narrative in terms of an experiencea"when we look at it as social and rhetoricala"our questions about narrative and the relations.h.i.+p between narrative and game s.h.i.+ft. For one, we must ask, what const.i.tutes a narrative experience? Furthermore, what does a narrative experience offer us? What is the rhetorical exigency that elicits a narrative response? What needs does it meet? Tabletop role-playing games (TRPGs) can be extremely immersive for the players involved, and this immersion can bring together a group of people through their common reaction to the role-playing game text being created.

While Whisper was waiting in the cottage attempting to sleep, as a player, I was temporarily removed from the rest of the Sorpraedor group. As I awaited my turn, I wrote the following in my personal blog: aFor those that donat play, I canat really explain it to you. But Iave had a total adrenaline rush going since about 4:00. The tension, the excitement ... all maxed out. Itas amazing. And the story. Oh, my G.o.d ... the story is so gooda (Jan. 11th, 2004, at 7:40 P.M.). The game that continued that evening was one of the ones I remember most from my time during the Sorpraedor campaign. It continued as follows: I had barely drifted off when I heard voices, familiar voices. The party had found me. I prepared for the inevitable confrontation, perhaps even death. David entered the cottage and immediately called me out. I tried to leave, but he pulled out his sword as if to attack me. Gareth was next, and seeing the situation, immediate attempted to come between us. Fletch also stepped between us, his sword drawn. Suddenly, Garethas magical viola was casting a spell, though I couldnat tell what spell it was. Fletch seemed to recognize it though, and attacked the viola, at which point, Gareth grabbed his musical instrument and informed the party he would be back in town.

But it only served as a momentary distraction from the larger conflict between David and me. Cuthalion was in the doorway, pointing his bow and arrow, and instructing us all to lower our weapons.

aI donat know what sheas done to you,a said David, clearly indicating me, aBut you know as well as I, this canat go on.a With that the halfling lunged at me with his sword, while I attempted only to disarm him.

In the back of my mind I thought, aI have my claws. No one knows about my dragon claws. Even with no spells, I can defend myself. But I mustnat fight my fellow party member. For the sake of the rest of the group, he cannot die by my hand.a And indeed he did not. I continued to dodge his blows, while Fletch and Cuthalion sided with me. An arrow landed in the halflingas back and he slumped over. The conflict was over.

This personal example was an extremely immersive gaming experience for reasons that I outline in this chapter. However, my own experiences are well supported by the comments of other players, and this chapter will draw on both my experiences and the comments made by other roleplayers in online forums and on the online survey I distributed. These combined experiences show that the TRPG is valuable to players because of the way it immerses them in a narrative experience.

One of the key features of the TRPG is its ability to immerse the players in the world and story that the game creates. As we have seen, examples of narration from Dungeons and Dragons (D&D) adventures often address the readers in the second-person, pulling them directly into the storyworld, situating them in a place, and immersing them. Yet, not all of the TRPG is spent being immersed in the story. In fact, a character is sometimes the strongest immersive feature of role-playing because of the playersa direct connection with their avatars. Spatial, temporal, and emotional immersion work together in the TRPG to give the player a narrative experience.

In order to understand the overall significance of immersion as part of the TRPG form and the way in which it contributes to the ability of TRPGs to respond to the needs of their players, we must first define what it means for a text to be immersive. Some modules may be played in just one evening, but in order for a TRPG campaign to continue for several years, player interest must be maintained. To do this, TRPG campaigns must immerse their partic.i.p.ants in more extensive worlds, such as Sorpraedor. They must have interesting and exciting stories, and they must have engaging characters. Furthermore, the gameplay itself must maintain suspense and interest. Fine (1983) states that players amust lose themselves to the game. The engrossment is not total or continuous, but it is what provides for athe funa within the gamea (p. 4). This ability to sustain interest is often much less of a concern in games that are only intended to last for one session; however, even these adventures hold a great potential for immersion. To be immersed is to be interested.

In her book on virtual reality, Ryan (2003) outlines three modes of immersiona"spatial, temporal, and emotional. Ryan (2003) contends that spatial immersion is a aresponse to setting,a temporal immersion relates to plot, and emotional immersion relates to characters (p. 121). Yet these definitions only pertain to immersion within a narrative. I take a more literal approach to these three type of immersion to explore the ways that players are immersed in terms of s.p.a.ce, time, and emotions in the TRPG. The degree to which players are immersed in the story is directly related to the social environment in which the game takes place.

Spatial, Temporal, and Emotional Immersion in the TRPG Storyworld.

Ryan (2003) states that for a text to be immersive it must create a s.p.a.ce to which the reader can relate. This spatial setting is a place for apotential narrative actiona but is not narrative because it amay lack the temporal extension [required] to develop this action into a plota (Ryan, 2003, p. 15). As discussed in chapter 4, a storyworld does not presuppose a narrative structure. Spatial immersion is found in narratives, but also in gamesa"even those without narrative elements.

TRPGs do involve an exploration of a world, yet the way in which this s.p.a.ce is created and the extent to which it can be immersive, differs in face-to-face TRPGs from computer games. For example, Murray (1998) notes that athe slamming of a dungeon door behind youa is more concrete in an online visual environment than in a face-to-face D&D game (p. 82). The lack of a visual element may make spatial immersion more difficult to achieve in D&D than in more visually oriented games; however, this type of immersion is still important to the game. Without the visual component to TRPGs, players may have difficulty picturing the exact setting that the DM lays out. Wizards of the Coastas market survey shows that in 2000, 56 percent of gaming groups used miniatures to solve this dilemma (Dancey 2000). This number has no doubt increased since Wizards of the Coast came out with their new line of D&D collectable miniatures (minis).1 Each player selects a small figure to represent his or her character.2 The DM will select additional figures to represent monsters or non-player characters (NPCs). When the game calls for exploration of s.p.a.ce, players often use graph paper to map out the journey for future reference. Similarly, the minis are often used to show the relative position of characters to one another on their journey. These minis can also be placed on a battle map, a plastic surface with graph paper-like hexes, each representing five feet. Because D&D combat rules often offer suggestions as to what you can or cannot do at certain distances, these battle maps help players visualize the scene and decide on their actions. The Sorpraedor campaign often uses battle maps and minis during battle sequences; however, some gaming sessions that focused more on information gathering or puzzle-solving would progress completely without them. Players may change minis frequently depending on what is readily available at the time of play. An unused die or token has been known to stand in for a monster or NPC when needed. Battle maps are marked on with erasable markers to roughly mark out terrain, only to be erased and remarked time and time again. Even though some gamers may get more interested in the visual representation of s.p.a.ce by painting and designing scenery such as miniature castles, these tools exist more for showing spatial relations.h.i.+ps than for immersing players visually.

Despite the lack of a visual element, the setting of a TRPG still appears to immerse players. As we saw in chapter 4, TRPGs often include elaborate oral descriptions of locations that players can then imagine. Roleplayers who explained the draw of TRPGs in my survey often mentioned setting, although it was rarely mentioned as the sole reason for playing TRPGs. For some partic.i.p.ants, the genre of role-play does not make a difference, so long as there is an interesting fantasy world. One partic.i.p.ant explains, aI enjoy exploring fantasy worlds in any type of game.a Another feels that there is less pressure surrounding the exploration of a TRPG world than might exist in other genres. aI like tabletop because it enables me to spend some time with my friends and explore these different worlds without too much worry,a this partic.i.p.ant says. Another explains, aI enjoy tabletop games because of the interaction with good friends to share a tale or imagined universe together,a while a forth lists ato explore new placesa as one of several reasons to play the TRPG. While spatial immersion seems to be a key reason for some players to engage with the TRPG, it alone does not seem to create the narrative experience that players desire.

Temporal immersion relates to plot (Ryan, 2003, p. 121). It is therefore the type of immersion most characteristically a.s.sociated with narrative structure; however, there are types of temporal immersion in games that also seem unconnected to narrativity. When the reader or player is engrossed temporally, there is the suspense of what will happen next. Ryan (2003) explains that temporal immersion is most suspenseful when situations have adiverging, but reasonably computable outcomesa (p. 141). She goes on to elaborate by explaining that situations become more suspenseful, and therefore more immersive, as the range of possibilities decreases (Ryan, 2003, p. 142).

This sort of suspense figures significantly in gaming but, again, may not be the most powerful draw of the TRPG. In many situations in the TRPG, multiple possibilities exist, and therefore the amount of suspense is limited. In the single session game I attended at the NC State Game Day, a member of our party used an extra powerful spell to blast to the bottom layer of the dungeon to where the treasure lay, completely bypa.s.sing the obstacles or clues the DM had intended for the party to run into, had they taken the standard method of following the stairs. Similarly, if the Sorpraedor party in the orc adventure had decided to go straight to Barrenstone and bypa.s.s Black Tower, the story would have had a very different ending because they would not have received the clues at Black Tower. In either case, there was no real anxiety or excitement about which option would happen next because many multiple options were possible. In contrast, the scene involving the conflict between Whisper and David was extremely suspenseful because the number of paths seemed significantly reduced. The relations.h.i.+p between these characters had degenerated to the point where it seemed clear that one of them must go, but not knowing which one or how the confrontation would go down was incredibly suspenseful for those involved.

However, in some ways the greatest temporal immersion and the greatest suspense does not come from the story surrounding the TRPG, but from the gameplay itself. Thus, temporal immersion may not always be linked directly to narrative elements. In Ryanas (2003) terms, complete temporal immersion exists when an action has only two possible outcomes (p. 142). The most suspenseful situations in D&D involve dice rolls, which are either/or situations. Players have a great deal of control over their charactersa actions; however, they often have to roll dice in order to determine whether or not those actions succeed. In these situations, there are only two optionsa"success or failure. When I rolled the dice to see if Whisper would succeed in disarming David, I knew that she would either make the roll and disarm him, or she would not (meaning his deadly attacks would continue).

For Murray (1998), temporal immersion is linked to causality. A plot involves events, and each event in the plot causes the next. Murrayas (2008) view is that if players feel as though they cause the events, their immersion level increases (p. 207). Rolling dice may seem to violate this condition of causality, but as Fine (1983) observes, TRPG players have a rather illogical view of their ability to control the dice. He calls this adice beliefsa and explains that when a computer system which randomly generated numbers between 1 and 100 for players was used in place of dice, players objected because they felt a certain amount of control had been taken away from them (Fine, 1983, p. 98). Fine (1983) observes that athe belief in the efficacy of dice is so ingrained that players deliberately change dice when dice are not performing well, in the belief that there are luckier dicea (p. 94). Gamers, of course, will not always confess such beliefs, but my own observations coincide with the behavior that Fine observed. Although these behaviors may seem illogical, Fine (1983) states that these beliefs are aengrossment beliefsa because they are legitimate inside the context of the game but not outside that context (p. 92). Not only do these beliefs arise from being immersed in the game, but they also add to immersion. A reasonable explanation for such illogical behavior is that believing one can control the dice adds to the temporal immersion and thus adds to the enjoyment of the game.

Dice rolls become increasingly suspenseful if the outcome in question is particularly important to the game. For example, if in a battle a character is low on hit points (life points) and may not be able to sustain another blow from a monster, the stakes of a given roll are particularly high. Rolling the dice also comes into play more during battle sequences than other parts or the game. However, itas not just a matter of combat; the player has multiple choices for how to get out of a situation such as this one. They might attempt to kill the monster, but they might also attempt to tumble out of the monsteras way, or take a healing potion. Whatever they decide, a roll at a time when the stakes are high like this will obviously cause suspense, even when there are multiple options for success. Because of the turn-taking sequence present in D&D, the player may only get to attempt one of those options before the monster lands its final crus.h.i.+ng blow.

In fact, when players somehow fail to make the dice roll the way they want them to, they are known to cheat. As Fine (1983) points out, cheating is aparticularly likely to occur in amust situationsaa"occasions that will influence the character for the rest of the gamea (p. 101). It is also more socially acceptable to cheat in TRPGs than other games. Fine (1983) observed that Dungeon Masters (DMs) will often tolerate cheating or even let a player re-roll if the dice affect the story in a way that appears detrimental (p. 101). In my experience, outright cheating on the part of the players is discouraged, and it is usually the DM that is called upon to adjust the rolls if necessary. In fact, I had no idea how necessary this behavior was until I attempted to DM a game myself. Upon realizing how easily characters could subvert my intentions, I found myself frequently modifying dice rolls in order to present more of a challenge for the players. While players make their rolls in the open, the DM often makes his or hers behind a screen, allowing him or her a greater opportunity to cheat or adjust the roll without affecting the immersion of the players.

Besides cheating, there are other ways to get around dice rolls. When I observed the RPGA game, the players had special cards that would allow them to add to a dice roll or reverse the outcome. While leaving the outcome completely to chance does add suspense, the ability to be more involved in the outcome of the story can also cause greater immersion in the storyworld. In other words, a decrease in temporal immersion may actually lead to an increase in either spatial or emotional immersion. There may be less chance and suspense, but the increased control will allow players to feel more a part of the story setting and their charactersa lives. In fact, some TRPGs have done away with dice rolls altogether in favor of more player-determined actions.

In addition, before the dice are even rolled, the player may need to convince the DM that an action should be attempted. For example, in a later Sorpraedor adventure, a gnome decided that she would add to her ability to kill the enemy by lighting her socks on fire and attaching them to her arrow to create a flaming arrow. Before making her dice roll to see if her arrow did damage, the player needed to convince the DM to allow her character to attempt the action. These situations then exist both in the storyworld and in the game world. Players are temporally immersed in the game actions, such as rolling the dice, that have an either/or consequence, but also in the story actions; and it is impossible to completely separate the two.

Emotional immersion may very well be the most intense type of immersion in the TRPG. As one of my survey partic.i.p.ants noted, aI enjoy role-playing a character. Yeah, weall do some dice stuff to help resolve conflict, but thatas just there to make sure everyone is treated fairly. The point is the character and the story, not the dice.a Ryan (2003) defines emotional immersion as a aresponse to charactera (p. 121). This type of immersion is, perhaps, the one that has led to the societal fears about the power of TRPGs that began in 1979 after a Michigan State student who enjoyed D&D committed suicide. The public voiced fear that players could become so engrossed in their alter egos that they would have trouble reemerging. Aa.r.s.eth (1997) states that this sort of role merging can take place in any game that involves an avatar, and that players, in general, see avatars as extensions of themselves (p. 113). However, Fine (1983) explains that there is a difference between arole embracementa and arole mergera (p. 207). Whether or not a player creates an avatar that resembles him or herself, the constant movement in and out of character prevents a complete role merger.

New players may be more likely than experienced players to see avatars as extensions of themselves, according to Nephew (2006). She explains that a great deal of insider knowledge comes into play when developing a character. Therefore, a less experienced player may have to rely more on their external experience for character creation, resulting in a character that more nearly mimics the self (Nephew, 2006, p. 123). A character that is closely related to the self may indeed increase emotional immersion. However, a new player overwhelmed by the rules of creating characters may also go the other direction and allow someone else, usually the DM, to create a character for them. In addition, games that are pre-made modules may come with pre-generated characters. This was the case when I partic.i.p.ated in NC State Game Day and Worldwide Dungeons and Dragons Game Day. Both of these gaming experiences involved pre-generated characters and modules, and the emotional immersion in these games was far less than in an ongoing campaign where players create and continually improve their characters. In fact, during these sessions, I noticed that the DM and other players did not try particularly hard to memorize the names of the characters, but would instead refer to them by their cla.s.s or race. Rather than asking aWhat does Whisper do?,a the DM might look at me and ask, aWhat does the sorceress do?a However, in an ongoing campaign not only was individual investment in the character more clear, the group also knew each other by character name and was emotionally immersed in the characters as a party.

Just as in Murrayas (1998) notion of temporal immersion, the degree that the player has control over his or her character also increases the emotional immersion. Author and D&D player Sh.e.l.ly Mazzan.o.ble (2007) clearly demonstrates this connection in her book Confessions of a Part-Time Sorceress. The t.i.tle alone makes the connection between Sh.e.l.ly and her sorceress character, Astrid. When Mazzan.o.ble (2007) describes creating her character, she immediately identifies with her in a motherly sort of way: aCradling my mini me in the palm of my hand, I realized that D&D isnat just a gamea"itas a lesson in DNAa (p. 39). She talks of her creation as aa new lifea that she has created and sometimes refers to herself as her characteras mother.

Creating a character is one of the times when the player has the most control over the game. In the Sorpraedor campaign, both Cuthalion and Maureen had elaborate backstories. Mark created multi-paged files detailing the lineage of Cuthalion and his elven heritage. Mary also decided that she wanted her character to have an interesting backstory; however, she collaborated more with Scott in order to make her characteras story fit in with the campaign.3 Even though players have a lot of control, thatas not to say that nothing is left to chance. Dice rolling can come into play when creating a character as well. In D&D, each character has ability scores such as strength, wisdom, and dexterity. These scores are often determined by rolling dice, although the player can determine which roll serves for which score. Another method for determining ability scores is to give players a certain number of points that can be distributed among the ability scores as the player sees fit (Tweet et al., 2003). Sometimes these points may help a player determine the backstory of a character. For example, if one roll is particularly low, the player may a.s.sign that to a certain ability score and then come up with a backstory to explain why that character is particularly deficient in that area. Perhaps the character has an extremely low charisma because he or she grew up in a very isolated part of the forest with little human interaction. In the game reality, the score may be low because of a poor roll on the dice, but adding backstory to explain it allows for greater emotional immersion on the part of the player.

In addition to initially creating a character, players continually get to outfit their characters. As characters progress in the game, they gain levels and additional abilities. For example, every few levels, the character gets an extra point to add to one of the ability scores. A DM may ask players to explain these additional skills in terms of the story in the game. For example, a wizard may need to explain and possibly role-play how he encountered a higher level mage that taught him a new spell. More often than not, however, these upgrades are more a matter of game mechanics than story. In addition, players may find or buy items to outfit their characters as they go. At times this may become a part of the role-playing, such as when Maryas character Gareth decided to have her musical instrument imbued with magical abilities. The viola, as seen in the story at the beginning of this chapter, developed its own powers and actually became intelligent, adding a whole new element to the story. However, in the case of more standard items, players often a.s.sume they can purchase them at store in town and do not spend time narrating this part of the story. Nevertheless, outfitting a character can also add to the emotional immersion that connects player and character. While the Playeras Handbook provides the option of a starting package with standard equipment for each new player, Mazzan.o.ble (2007) relates this option to asitting on a bench outside of JC Penney with the elderly husbands waiting for their wives to finish shoppinga (p. 67). Some players may opt for pretty standard equipment, but those who really become involved emotionally with their characters may find outfitting them an important part of the game.4 Whether or not they enjoy outfitting them, players often do become attached to their characters to a degree not often seen in response to traditional narratives. Fine (1983) observed that players often responded with anger or resentment to their characteras problems or death (p. 222). In a post to a blog t.i.tled agamer_chicks,a a user posed this question: aIn your gaming groups, have you ever had such an intense/amazing/tragic/touching event happen that people start crying in the middle of the gamea"in-character or out?a In the fourteen responses that bloggers gave to the question, there was unanimous agreement that TRPGs provoked this type of emotional response. Furthermore, the situations presented always involved situations such as death or trauma in a characteras life. One respondent explains that she cried when, her acharacteras mentor/love interest sacrificed himself to save the party.a Other players also mention the death of players. One blogger tells the story of a conflict between their character and the group: My Mage (another man) was in love with a villain (partly a past life thing) who returned his feelings, but all the other characters HATED the guy. My player character walked a fine line, staying loyal to his companions while staying faithful to his lover, but hiding his real emotions. When they finally figured it out, they cornered him and called him on it. He had to explain how he felt and how it had all happened, and try to talk them out of killing their enemy. That got me, and some of the other players too.

To these experiences, I add my own experience with the situation presented at the beginning of this chapter. Although many moments in the Sorpraedor campaign led to strong emotions, the strongest emotional scene for me was the confrontation between Whisper and David that resulted in Davidas death. Although these feelings did not negatively affect our out-of-game relations.h.i.+ps, there was a great deal of anger and frustration exhibited during gameplay over this development in the story.

Social Immersion.

While spatial, temporal, and emotional immersion are connected to both the storyworld and the game world, none of them hold up if social immersion is not present. The importance of the social setting in the TRPG was a point brought up repeatedly by my survey partic.i.p.ants. Of the 40 respondents to provide a written response explaining why they enjoyed multiple types of role-playing, over half (26) explicitly mentioned the social interaction involved in the TRPG. One player notes, aThe faceto-face [game] serves a social purpose as much or more than the game itself, at least in my demongraphic.a Another states, aItas an activity that helps me become belonged in a small community, and lets me be creative with other people, which is a valuable resource to me.a The social setting can reinforce or interfere with other types of immersion in the TRPG. Goffman (1961) observed that face-to-face games involved a sort of mutual emotional commitment that could either be added to or detracted from based on the other partic.i.p.antsa level of engrossment. He states that a player not being as involved in the group activity acan discredit the ident.i.ty imputed to him as someone who is able and ready to immerse himself in an encounter and can weaken for the others their own involvementa (Goffman, 1961, p. 42). Although Goffmanas (1961) a.n.a.lysis predates TRPGs, the way the social situation affects immersion in the game is similar. During the RPGA session I observed, one of the partic.i.p.ants was particularly distracted by her need for dinner. She spent a good amount of time pursuing local take-out menus, often needing to be reminded that it was her turn or even asking another player to take her turn for her. Her lack of immersion in the social situation appeared to affect the intensity of the game as a whole. Since many TRPG gaming sessions last six hours or more, incidents such as this, phone calls, computer distractions, or the like are not uncommon; however, this type of distraction can lessen the immersion in both the game and the story for the group as a whole.

The shared experiences of the group members may also increase the level of emotional responses, such as laughter, to situations in the story that recur. For example, the incident in the orc adventure where Maureen carved an aMa into her dead a.s.sailantas body later became an inside joke for the group. David, at the time, had commented that he could not tell if the marking was an aMa or a aWaa"whether it stood for Maureen or Whisper. While this incident led to Davidas increased suspicious of Whisper that ended with the confrontation I have told here, the reference to aIs it an M or a W?a continued to come up in the game, even after both Maureen and David were no longer active characters in the game. My fellow players liked to throw this little inside joke out there any time my character did anything suspicious, and it resulted in laughter from the group as a whole. Goffman (1961) calls such moments of shared emotional response aflooding outa as the emotion of the group can no longer be contained (p. 56).

The agamers_chicka blog posting also mentions moments when not just one player but an entire group was reduced to tears over a particularly emotional situation. When these times are not shared, they can prove embarra.s.sing, and one player relates retreating to the bathroom for a private cry during a role-playing session. However, another blogger responds, aI had such a phobia of that before it finally happened, and WHEN I finally cried in front of the group I was SOOOO embarra.s.sed! But now all the males in our group have cried or at least gotten teary-eyed at some point or another.a The emotional immersion of the group setting also seems to increase over time and is thus more prevalent in long-term campaigns than in games that last for only one session. The longer I played Whisper, the more the tension increased at moments that were crucial to her survival as a character. Likewise, the longer the group stayed together the more common experiences they had to relate to each other. Thus, emotional immersion exists both because of playersa relations to characters within the story and in response to the social connections among players as they respond to the story.

Social Motive.

Comments from both gamers and scholars show a connection between the fictional world of the narrative in the TRPG and the actual world (AW). Not only is the connection between these two worlds key for an enjoyable role-playing experience, but we also begin to see that there is a social purpose behind the TRPG. What is the purpose that ties together the social group of TRPG players? What is the exigence that calls them together to perform this specific activity? Bitzer (1968) explains that an exigence is aan imperfection,a something that needs to be fixed in some way (p. 6). In terms of rhetoric, the exigence must be of social rather than individual concern; Miller (1984) states that aexigence must be seen [...] as a social motivea (p. 158). She goes on to explain that aexigence is a set of particular social patterns and expectations that provides a socially objectified motive for addressing danger, ignorance, separatenessa (Miller, 1984, p. 158). But what does this have to do with role-playing? Bebergal (2004), a journalist and gamer, explains that for his group of friends, TRPGs were a means of acreating narratives to make sense of feeling socially marginal.a He also reminds his readers that D&D can help them make stories from the world around them, stories that can lend clarity to current political and cultural situations (Bebergal 2004). Murray (1998) points out that games, like narratives, offer ainterpretations of experiencea and that they are rituals used to aenact the patterns that give meaning to our livesa (143). Similarly, Mackay (2001) sees TRPGs as a means of bringing unity to the lives of players (p. 116). Games and narratives both areflect our desire and sorrows with the heightened clarity of the imaginationa (Murray, 1998, p. 274). It seems that scholars recognize that the exigence to create and control narratives is defined by the social motivation to connect with others and impose meaning on the world.

Similarly, scholars of both narrative and rhetoric have discussed the power of storytelling, in general, to make sense of experience. W.R. Fisheras (1984) article aNarration as a Human Communication Paradigm: The Case of Public Moral Argumenta builds on MacIntyre, who argues that it was not reason but storytelling that separated humankind from animals. Thus, Fisher (1984) claims that narrative is the dominant paradigm for interpreting and understanding experience (p. 1). Similarly, Jerome Bruner (1991) sees narrative as aan instrument of mind in the construction of realitya (p. 6). Ochs and Caps (2001) stress narrative as a asense-making processa rather than a afinished producta (p. 15). Narratives, then, seem to have direct relevance to society and the way that we interpret the world around us. They seem to serve a rhetorical purpose. However, the TRPG consists of fictional narratives, not personal stories about the AW. Current narrative theory has not always distinguished between fiction and nonfictional narratives and for good reason. Walsh (2007) points here to the influence of Hayden White and the argument that all narratives (White focuses on histories) are to an extent inherently fictional (p. 39). Yet, one might argue that the need for fictional narrative is not one of making sense of the world but about escaping from it. TRPGs have also been heralded for their escapist qualities. When players are immersed in a fantasy world, they may feel like they can escape from the AW. Certainly the world is fictional and the experiences depicted in the story, such as casting spells or speaking with orcs, are not directly a.n.a.logous to real-world experiences. Murray (1998) explains that aa good story puts us safely outside ourselvesa (p. 100). Fine (1983) explains that TRPGs do just that. They create a aworld set apart from the everyday worlda (p. 183). However, it seems to me that the position of narrative as meaning-making versus narrative as escapism do not have to be seen in opposition. Fine (1983) admits that even D&Das fantastical events aare grounded in the physical worlda (p. 183). Mackay (2001) agrees that TRPGs establish an aalternate realitya but that this reality is aderived from patterns established in the artifacts of popular culturea rather than actual events (p. 81). Escapism is a powerful draw of the TRPG, but in order for a world of fantasy to make sense, it must in some way connect to the AW.

Returning to possible-worlds theory, I offer an explanation of the connection that fictional narratives might have with the AW. Ryan (1991) explains that the principle of minimal departure states that when we create an alternate possible world (APW), we tend to interpret it based on our a.s.sumptions about the AW (p. 51). For example, in order for us to understand the entangle spell that David casts on the orcs in the Blaze Arrow story, we must a.s.sume that without the spell, orcs move freely about the earth in a manner much as we walk about ours. Because this a.s.sumption is in play, we are able to comprehend the idea that the entanglement spell prevents the orcs from moving normally.

TRPGs offer a particularly interesting test case for the principle of minimal departure because of the way they s.h.i.+ft so quickly between real and imagined worlds. While we apply the principle of minimal departure to the characters in the fictional world (including the narrator), Ryan (1991) states that even in the case of first person narration we are able to differentiate the author from the narrator. As an example, she explains that if John Smith wrote a tale about a gnome named John Smith, the reader would not simply picture John Smith as a gnome but would understand that the gnome is a character separate from John Smith, the author (Ryan, 1991, p. 59). While a traditional narrative may allow the reader to separate author and narrator clearly, this separation becomes more complicated in the TRPG setting where the creator of the character is right in front of you, pretending to be a character that has, quite possibly, a different race or a different s.e.x. Although Mary originally played the character of Maureen, she later switched to the male character, Gareth. However, the group as a whole continued to refer to Gareth as a ashea and at the very least decided that Gareth was a very effeminate male character. Boundaries between player and character are blurred in the TRPG, in part due to the lack of a physical or visual text. This sometimes leads to over-applying the principle of minimal departure. If I were to read the description of Cuthalion created by Mark, I would realize that Cuthalion is, in fact, much shorter and older than Mark himself. However, when I picture the character of Cuthalion, it is very difficult to picture anything except Mark with more elvish features, such as pointy ears. Similarly, seeing Maryas character as female over extends the principle of minimal departure in a way that does not happen with visual or print-based texts. What we see here, then, is that rather than being an internal logic of the APW, the medium of storytelling affects the way that we apply the principle of minimal departure and the degree to which we apply it.

Furthermore, the principle of minimal departure helps us explain why narratives, even fictional ones, might inform our views of the AW. If the way to understand the fantasy world is by placing it in relation to the AW, this process can easily be reversed and the fantasy world can be used to make sense of the AW as well. Schott (2006) gives an example of this from the game Oddworld. He cites one playeras connection between events in the game and the way African American slaves were treated (Carr et al., 2006, p. 141). This example shows the reversal of the principle of minimal departure where the player is able to apply something in the APW in order to understand something in the AW and explains previously cited claims that games can lead to greater political awareness. We can begin to see, then, why fictional narratives might still meet Bitzeras criteria for a rhetorical situation of causing change in the world.

However, just because games hold this potential for increased understanding of the AW does not mean that the primary motivation for playing them, or the rhetorical situation that they respond to, relates to this understanding. For me, the point that TRPGs respond to such an exigence seems too clean, too simplified. It seems too much to argue that TRPGs always bring players a greater understanding of the world and their place within it. They are, after all, gamesa"mostly played for entertainment. The above claims seem to benefit the educators in us, looking for value in a popular text. We want to show that it is valuable to learning, that it can be useful in our cla.s.sroom, that it improves our lives.5 While this perspective is not altogether bad, it undercuts the way that TRPGs are actually engaged with in society. While there is often some truth in asocially marginalizeda stereotypes, many gamers have successful careers and families. Many exist far more in the mainstream of society than we might imagine. Furthermore, the game may not directly add any insight into events in the AW. Rather than arguing that gamers emerge from their TRPG experience as more socially adjusted, politically aware individuals (although they might), I argue that TRPGs allow players to access their creativity and tap into the power of narrative. This power is a unifying purpose that allows us to separate the TRPG from other genres of both narratives and games.

Direct application of role-playing events to the AW may or may not happen, but some gamers find that through escaping to a fantasy world they are able to find comfort in their everyday lives. One survey partic.i.p.ant mentioned that TRPGs helped them abe a better person then I could possibly be in real life.a Nephew (2006) argues that arole-playing allows the player to escape a sometimes harsh reality into a dreamworld in which they can re-a.s.sert their personal power and individual sense of wortha (p. 125). When I interviewed Mark from the Sorpraedor campaign he shared with me that just before joining the Sorpraedor campaign, he had suffered a personal tragedy. He felt that playing D&D provided him an escape to a world that was better than our own worlda"or if not better at least more within his control. Unlike the situation in his real life, Mark felt that in the gaming world our party of adventurers was equipped to handle whatever challenges were thrown our way. Even after years of gameplay and friends.h.i.+p, I had no idea that Mark had experienced the tragedy he mentioned until our interview. It did not come directly into the game, nor did Mark try to deliberately work out personal feelings though Cuthalionas ingame actions. However, the sense of control that he had over the game world and the immersion he experienced in Sorpraedor allowed for a powerful escape from the AW.

Immersion in the setting, plot, characters, and social setting all work together to meet the social exigence of bringing together players to form a narrative. Narrative, as a rhetorical device, is used to bridge separateness and to provide a better understanding of our world and our lives. Role-playing, in a more general sense, may be used in counseling or educational settings to help partic.i.p.ants understand situations in new ways. The application of the TRPGa"as a genre of entertainmenta"may not be so direct. Nevertheless, the very ability to escape to a world over which one has some control, where one can set things right and be a hero, is itself a powerful social force. Thus, a social motive that involves connecting with people to make sense of the actual world is not actually at odds with the notion of escapism.

While all of these factors are important to the TRPG, it is important to recognize that they are not all generalizable. As I have noted, gaming sessions that are isolated events do not evoke the same kind of immersion as those of longer running campaigns. Without this in-depth immersion, the players may not feel the same type of escapism or connection with their lives that might be true for long-time gamers in a common social group. In addition, the gaming style of a group or particular player may lead them to be more immersed in one aspect of the game than another. These differences in style may also affect the story as it evolves from the gameplay. For example, although it was a one time adventure, when I DMed Speaker in Dreams (Wyatt, 2001) I provided a story hook for a player that I knew would be interested in her characteras backstory. I told her that her characteras mentor was in the town where the adventure took place and that she was there to visit her. The NPC who I determined was the mentor was the victim of a kidnapping in the story and thus this bit of backstory both changed the trajectory of the adventure and added to the story. Similarly, Scott created a backstory for a character named Blaine that would later enter the Sorpraedor campaign. Blaineas true lineage, unknown to his player, was connected to one of the key n.o.bles in the Sorpraedor world. However, this particular player was not the type to be overly immersed in the character. Therefore, unlike the story of Mary and Maureen, this particular point in the story was left unexplored.

Some gamers and gaming groups may be more interested in progressing the storyline, while other may want to explore territory, and others may be primarily interested in developing their characters. The degrees of immersion in each of these areas vary. However, what does seem to apply to TRPGs as a whole is the potential for each of these kinds of immersion. That potential may go unrealized in a particularly unsuccessful gaming session where players do not bond, fail to follow clues that lead them in interesting directions, or allow themselves to be drawn in by any number of distractions. For example, when I attended NC State Game Day, the one-time TRPG session was not immersive at all for me. In this case it was merely social pressure and etiquette that caused me to continue playing, much different forces from those that maintained my attention in the Sorpraedor campaign. Stories in other mediums may fail to immerse their audience as well. A reader may skip ahead in a book or stop reading altogether. Thus, the failure of any particular text to be immersive should not lead us to discount the potential for immersion in any given medium.

I have outlined here the many ways that TRPGs may be immersive, but not all of these immersive qualities pertain to the story. Dice rolling is more a matter of gameplay than story, although the outcomes of dice rolls do affect the outcome of the story. In addition, social connections may cause gamers to be emotionally immersed in a gaming session even if they do not feel a particular connection to their characters. However, the key immersive factor in each of these categories seems to be the control that players feel. Co-creator of D&D, Gary Gygax is quoted as saying that the appeal of role-playing is that average people, who may not have power in their own lives, abecome super powerful and affect everythinga (as cited in Kushner, 2003, p. 6). It is this sense of control that ultimately meets the rhetorical exigence of the TRPG.

7.

Levels of Authors.h.i.+pa" How Gamers Interact with Texts and Create Their Own.

I have argued that one of the key features of the tabletop role-playing game (TRPG) is the narrative agency experienced by players. As I have previously discussed, agency is not always a component of interactivity. Readers may interact with a text, like a gamebook, without having agency over that text. Yet, just as interactivity does not presuppose agency, agency does not presuppose authors.h.i.+p. In her study of on agency and authors.h.i.+p in role-playing games (RPGs), Jessica Hammer (2007) explores the complexities of agency and authors.h.i.+p in both tabletop and online role-playing games. She defines agency as the acapacity to take actiona and authors.h.i.+p as the aability to enforce and judge the results of those actionsa (p. 72). Sim