From Cover To Cover Part 6

More complex still is the use of flashbacks flashbacks in which the author disrupts a linear chronology to recount events that occurred at an earlier time, usually to give readers insight into a character. This sort of narrative order can be very difficult for less experienced child readers to follow, as they expect events to happen in a chronological sequence and will struggle to fit the past events into the present. For them, the flashback needs to be clearly framed in some way so that they understand the s.h.i.+ft in time. Sharon Creech accomplished this in in which the author disrupts a linear chronology to recount events that occurred at an earlier time, usually to give readers insight into a character. This sort of narrative order can be very difficult for less experienced child readers to follow, as they expect events to happen in a chronological sequence and will struggle to fit the past events into the present. For them, the flashback needs to be clearly framed in some way so that they understand the s.h.i.+ft in time. Sharon Creech accomplished this in Walk Two Moons Walk Two Moons by introducing the flashbacks as a series of brief episodes in a continuing story that thirteen-year-old Salamanca tells her grandparents on a cross-country car trip. With frequent interruptions from Sal's grandparents, young readers never lose sight of where they are in time; in a sense, the flashbacks seem to occur in the present, since they are part of a story being told in the present. by introducing the flashbacks as a series of brief episodes in a continuing story that thirteen-year-old Salamanca tells her grandparents on a cross-country car trip. With frequent interruptions from Sal's grandparents, young readers never lose sight of where they are in time; in a sense, the flashbacks seem to occur in the present, since they are part of a story being told in the present.

CONFLICT.

Conflict is a major element of plot that keeps the story moving and stirs the interest of the reader who wants to find out what happens next and how the conflict will be resolved. Stories with little or no conflict are dull and slow moving, and inspire readers to say that nothing happened in the book. Conversely, stories with nothing but conflict seem shallow and contrived. Most formula series fiction, for example, is heavy on conflict, light on character.

To build a plot, an author places the main character (protagonist) into situations in which she comes into conflict with something or someone else (antagonist). The antagonist might be another character, nature, society, or self. A great many children's novels center on character versus character character versus character conflict, from the stories about facing up to the bully down the street to those about adjusting to life with a new stepparent. Stanley Yelnats and the other inmates at Camp Green Lake are pitted against the unsavory adult authority figures in Louis Sachar's conflict, from the stories about facing up to the bully down the street to those about adjusting to life with a new stepparent. Stanley Yelnats and the other inmates at Camp Green Lake are pitted against the unsavory adult authority figures in Louis Sachar's Holes Holes, and the conflict between the two groups drives the plot. Character versus nature Character versus nature has been popularized in survival stories, such as has been popularized in survival stories, such as The Young Man and the Sea The Young Man and the Sea, by Rodman Philbrick, in which a twelve-year-old boy lost at sea struggles to survive and reels in a gigantic fish in the meantime. These two types of conflict are by far the most common in children's novels aimed at eight-to eleven-year-olds, most likely because they detail the type of outward struggles with which children can easily identify.

Character versus society need not involve conflict with society at large; instead it may be society in microcosm, viewed on a child's scale, such as the society of a neighborhood or school. Jerry Spinelli brilliantly uses this sort of conflict on a scale children can comprehend in need not involve conflict with society at large; instead it may be society in microcosm, viewed on a child's scale, such as the society of a neighborhood or school. Jerry Spinelli brilliantly uses this sort of conflict on a scale children can comprehend in Wringer Wringer, when ten-year-old Palmer refuses to partic.i.p.ate in a cruel rite of pa.s.sage. In children's novels, character versus self character versus self can be developed as an inner conflict a character faces, centered on moral dilemmas a child reader can easily grasp. For example, a homeless girl constantly questions her own actions when she steals a dog so she can claim the reward money in can be developed as an inner conflict a character faces, centered on moral dilemmas a child reader can easily grasp. For example, a homeless girl constantly questions her own actions when she steals a dog so she can claim the reward money in How to Steal a Dog How to Steal a Dog, by Barbara O'Connor.

PLOT D DEVELOPMENT.

Conflict can be used in different ways to build different types of plots. An episodic episodic plot is made up of a series of conflicts that are introduced and resolved, usually chapter by chapter. Episodic plots are generally easier for newly independent readers, who often have difficulty sustaining concentration when they first begin to read chapter books. Beverly Cleary's popular books about Henry Huggins, Beezus, and Ramona are perfect for this level, largely due to their episodic plots. plot is made up of a series of conflicts that are introduced and resolved, usually chapter by chapter. Episodic plots are generally easier for newly independent readers, who often have difficulty sustaining concentration when they first begin to read chapter books. Beverly Cleary's popular books about Henry Huggins, Beezus, and Ramona are perfect for this level, largely due to their episodic plots.

In a progressive progressive plot, conflict is introduced early in the book and carried through until there is a climax and resolution near the story's end. Progressive plots generally follow the same general pattern of action: plot, conflict is introduced early in the book and carried through until there is a climax and resolution near the story's end. Progressive plots generally follow the same general pattern of action: 1. Presentation of brief background that sets the stage 2. Introduction of conflict 3. Development of conflict 4. Climax or turning point 5. Resolution In children's novels, the conflict is generally introduced very early in the book: Something happens to grab the reader's attention, to arouse curiosity, to entice the child to read on. After briefly setting the scene as Copenhagen in World War II, Lois Lowry introduces the conflict on page two of Number the Stars Number the Stars, when the main characters, racing each other home from school, are stopped by German soldiers.

The development of conflict is an essential part of the plot, since it accounts for most of a novel. It must be well paced so that the story doesn't lag, and it must continually stimulate the reader's interest. An author can achieve this by using two devices: suspense suspense and and foreshadowing foreshadowing.

Suspense raises questions into the reader's mind: What will happen next? Why did the character do that? When the girls come up against the German soldiers in Number the Stars Number the Stars, for example, we immediately wonder: Why would soldiers stop a group of little girls? Have they done something wrong? Are the soldiers friends or enemies? We keep reading to find out. Suspense that occurs at the end of a chapter is referred to as a cliff-hanger cliff-hanger, and it propels readers directly into the next chapter so that they can find out what happens.

Foreshadowing gives us clues as to what will happen later in the story. To use the same example from Number the Stars Number the Stars, two instances of foreshadowing occur in the scene with the soldiers. We note that one of the girls, Ellen, finds the experience much more frightening than her friend Annemarie does. We will later learn that Ellen is Jewish. Annemarie's little sister, Kirsti, on the other hand, pushes one soldier's hand away and says "Don't!" "Don't!" when he strokes her hair. This foreshadows the acts of resistance we will see later in the book. Foreshadowing builds antic.i.p.ation, causing readers to make predictions about what will happen later in the story. when he strokes her hair. This foreshadows the acts of resistance we will see later in the book. Foreshadowing builds antic.i.p.ation, causing readers to make predictions about what will happen later in the story.

When foreshadowing is obvious and frequent, the plot is said to be predictable. In general, children seem far less troubled by predictable plots than adults. Many children express delight at figuring out a book's ending on their own-and then they'll turn around and read the whole thing over again, just to bask a while in their own cleverness.

A good example of less obvious foreshadowing was present in the opening scene from Number the Stars Number the Stars: Annemarie encounters German soldiers once again at the end of the book, and she survives by behaving as her little sister Kirsti did in the first encounter. Subtle uses of foreshad-owing give readers a sense that the ending was inevitable, even if they did not guess the outcome. Experienced readers usually find this sort of ending more satisfying.

And what about that ending? After a steady buildup of suspense and foreshadowing, the protagonist ultimately engages in some sort of final confrontation with the antagonist, which will lead to a turning point in the conflict and a resolution. In children's novels, the protagonist almost always wins the battle against the antagonist. To return once again to Number the Stars Number the Stars, the final confrontation occurs when Annemarie carries a basket containing something of utmost importance to her uncle in the Resistance movement and she is stopped by German soldiers. By pretending to be a silly little girl carrying lunch to her uncle, she outwits the soldiers and manages to get the important information to her uncle so that he can help her friend Ellen escape to Sweden. Two chapters follow this climactic scene and give a final resolution to the story so that readers feel a sense of satisfaction and completeness. Occasionally, a children's novel will leave matters unresolved in an open ending open ending by suggesting two or more possible interpretations and leaving it up to the reader to decide what happened. This was done most famously by Lowry in another of her books, by suggesting two or more possible interpretations and leaving it up to the reader to decide what happened. This was done most famously by Lowry in another of her books, The Giver The Giver.

Novels for children sometimes use more complex structures than a straightforward progressive or episodic plot. A parallel parallel structure builds two progressive plots simultaneously. Louis Sachar skillfully developed two parallel plots in structure builds two progressive plots simultaneously. Louis Sachar skillfully developed two parallel plots in Holes Holes, weaving an account of events from four generations earlier into the contemporary story of Stanley Yelnats, who was cursed due to the actions of his great-great-grandfather. Sachar makes an otherwise complex structure straightforward by clearly delineating time, place, and characters, so that readers know exactly where they are at every point in the story.

Another possible structure in children's fiction combines a progressive main plot with subplots. There are several subplots involving both people and animals that occur simultaneously to the two parallel plots in Kathi Appelt's The Underneath The Underneath. The author uses short chapters, episodic chronological action, and a strong sense of place to tie them all together so that the story is easy for children to follow.

When you evaluate the plot of any children's novel, think of it from several angles. What kind of narrative order does it have? Will this order be clear for the intended audience? If the author chose a more complex type of order, what purpose does it serve? How does it illuminate character or advance the plot? What kind of conflict do you notice in the story? Is there too much or not enough conflict present? How is the conflict used to build the plot? What type of plot structure is used? Is it appropriate for the intended audience? If the plot structure is more complex, how does the author clarify the ordering of events for young readers? Do you notice clear instances of suspense and foreshadowing? How is conflict resolved in the story? Does the resolution seem credible?

CHARACTERIZATION.

The characters characters are a crucial part of any children's novel, because they serve as a link between the reader and the story. The link is established when the child reader is able to identify with the actions, motives, and feelings of the main character in a story. One way for the author to accomplish this is to choose a main character who is close to the same age as readers in the book's target audience. A book aimed at nine-to eleven-year-olds, for instance, is less likely to succeed if its protagonist is only six years old. On the other hand, children do like to identify with characters who are a couple of years older than they are, so a book aimed at nine-to eleven-year-olds works well with a thirteen-year-old protagonist. are a crucial part of any children's novel, because they serve as a link between the reader and the story. The link is established when the child reader is able to identify with the actions, motives, and feelings of the main character in a story. One way for the author to accomplish this is to choose a main character who is close to the same age as readers in the book's target audience. A book aimed at nine-to eleven-year-olds, for instance, is less likely to succeed if its protagonist is only six years old. On the other hand, children do like to identify with characters who are a couple of years older than they are, so a book aimed at nine-to eleven-year-olds works well with a thirteen-year-old protagonist.

TYPES OF CHARACTERS.

Authors can also establish ident.i.ty between the protagonist and the reader by creating a main character who seems realistic and believable. Through character development character development the author reveals complexity by showing us how characters think, act, and feel, so that readers get a sense of a real, three-dimensional person. Not all characters in a story need to be equally as well developed in order for the novel to succeed as good fiction. the author reveals complexity by showing us how characters think, act, and feel, so that readers get a sense of a real, three-dimensional person. Not all characters in a story need to be equally as well developed in order for the novel to succeed as good fiction.

Secondary characters play smaller roles and often serve a different purpose, such as to advance the plot. They are usually defined by one or two characteristics alone and therefore seem to be one-dimensional or play smaller roles and often serve a different purpose, such as to advance the plot. They are usually defined by one or two characteristics alone and therefore seem to be one-dimensional or flat flat. Sometimes these characteristics are immediately recognizable because we've seen them countless times in other books and on television. Those created in this way are called stock characters stock characters. The pirate with an eye patch and a peg leg is one example of a stock character; and the smart, prissy girl who is the teacher's pet is another. When the characteristics have their basis in a recognized cultural or social shorthand, the stock characters are said to be stereotyped stereotyped. We see this in such stock characters as the African-American kid who's good at basketball, or the Asian-American kid who's good at math. While an author might succeed in making a case for traits of this sort in a fully developed character, the use of them as defining characteristics for secondary characters is an indication of laziness-or even bias, conscious or otherwise-on the part of the author.

Primary characters are those who are closer to the central conflict in the story, and since they play a larger role, we expect a higher degree of character development. We refer to well-developed characters as are those who are closer to the central conflict in the story, and since they play a larger role, we expect a higher degree of character development. We refer to well-developed characters as rounded rounded and those who grow and change over the course of a novel as and those who grow and change over the course of a novel as dynamic dynamic. Since most children's novels feature child characters who experience some degree of maturation as a result of the conflict they face, we expect good fiction to have a dynamic, rounded main character.

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT.

We come to know characters in several different ways by observing how they look, what they do, what they think, what they say, and how they are viewed by other characters in the book. Throughout the course of a novel, an author reveals complexities of character through appearance, action, thought appearance, action, thought, and dialogue dialogue. A well-rounded character is developed using a combination of all these devices. I will cite some examples of how this is done, using the character D Foster in Jacqueline Woodson's After Tupac & D Foster After Tupac & D Foster.

Readers build mental images of characters based on what the author tells us about a character's appearance appearance. As a surface quality, it is often the defining characteristic in a secondary character, but it is rarely definitive in a rounded, primary character. An author can use a description of appearance to arouse a reader's curiosity about a character initially, as Woodson does when the narrator gives us her first impression of D: She was tall and skinny and looked like she thought she was cute with her green eyes and pretty sort of half way of smiling at us. Her hair was in a bunch of braids with black rubber bands at the end of every single one. The braids were long, coming down over her shoulders and across her back, and her hair was this strange dark coppery color I'd never seen on a black girl-not naturally. naturally. She was wearing a T-s.h.i.+rt that said " She was wearing a T-s.h.i.+rt that said "h.e.l.lO MY NAME IS" in green letters, only there wasn't a name after that, so it didn't make any sense whatsoever. I looked down at her feet. She had on white-girl clogs like you saw on the girls on TV-the ones with blond hair who lived in places like California or Miami or somewhere.

This description of D's appearance makes it clear that she is quite different from the narrator and her friend who've known each other all their lives. Like them, readers will want to know where D came from and who she is.

Actions are also visible only on the surface but they provide more insight into character because they spring from internal thoughts and motives. While many actions in a novel serve to move the plot along, some exist only to reveal character. Note, for example, what the following description of action tells us about D's character: " are also visible only on the surface but they provide more insight into character because they spring from internal thoughts and motives. While many actions in a novel serve to move the plot along, some exist only to reveal character. Note, for example, what the following description of action tells us about D's character: "D finished her other braid and looked at her watch-she'd bought it for ten dollars in Times Square, and most of the time it worked. She always wore it and was always checking it." In just two sentences, we learn that D has some degree of independence-she has her own money and has bought something for herself in Times Square. But her actions also imply that someone, somewhere, expects her to be home at a certain time. Her independence has its limits.

The author can directly enter the main character's mind to reveal aspects of character through thought thought. In the pa.s.sage quoted above about D's appearance, we get a good sense of the narrator's first impression of her through her thoughts, and this tells us as much about her as it does about D. Since Woodson uses the first person point of view of an unnamed narrator, she can't enter D's head, but she still is able to reveal some of D's thoughts through unconscious dialogue: "I know it sounds whack," she said, so softly it sounded like she was talking to herself almost. "But when I see him on TV, I be thinking about the way his life was all crazy. And we both all sad about it and stuff. But we ain't trying to let the sad feelings get us down. We ain't trying to give up."

The two friends are so stunned by D's sharing her innermost thoughts that they both stop talking, hoping D will say more. But she doesn't. That leads the narrator and Neeka to consider their own lives in contrast to D's, and to reveal more about all the characters through dialogue dialogue: "Neeka," I said as we headed into my house. "You think we the lucky ones?"Neeka stopped at the bottom stair leading up to my apartment. It was warm in our hallway. Someone had baked something sweet and the smell made me hungry."Like how?"I shrugged. "I don't know. When I heard D talking about her life like that...when she was saying about being hungry and-""If we so lucky, how come she's the one get to take the bus all over the city by herself by herself and don't have to worry about being home until nine o'clock?" and don't have to worry about being home until nine o'clock?"

With just a few lines of dialogue, Woodson shows us that the narrator is growing up a bit faster than her friend, as she is beginning to develop a more mature understanding of the world. Through the comments of others comments of others, an author can add further dimension to a character by showing us how she fits (or doesn't fit) into the social life surrounding her. Direct comments of the author comments of the author can also be used for this purpose. Both must be used with care, or we end up with a less satisfying characterization that is based on telling, rather than showing, what a character is like. can also be used for this purpose. Both must be used with care, or we end up with a less satisfying characterization that is based on telling, rather than showing, what a character is like.

All these factors must be taken into consideration when we evaluate characterization in fiction. What types of characters do you identify in the book? Are they realistic and believable? Is the main character dynamic? What devices does the author use to develop the main character? What kinds of changes do the characters undergo? How are secondary characters developed? What purposes do the secondary characters serve? How do events that occur in the novel shape the characters?

POINT OF VIEW.

When authors create fictional worlds, they choose a particular stance within that world that defines what its perimeters will be. This is determined by point of view point of view, the vantage point from which the action in the story is viewed and related. The author may choose to tell the story from inside a character's head or by looking over a character's shoulder or by viewing the entire scene from a distance. Each of these choices offers different advantages, challenges, and limitations.

First person point of view tells a story from inside the character's head. It is readily identifiable due to the use of the p.r.o.noun "I" by the narrator. First person has the advantage of evoking a powerful sense of reality through the immediacy of the character's voice. This strength is also its greatest limitation: The narrative is limited to what the main character thinks, observes, or hears from another character. Some authors try to get around this limitation by using dialogue in which one character briefs the protagonist to get information across to the reader. Overuse of this device may be an indication that the author has not mastered first person. point of view tells a story from inside the character's head. It is readily identifiable due to the use of the p.r.o.noun "I" by the narrator. First person has the advantage of evoking a powerful sense of reality through the immediacy of the character's voice. This strength is also its greatest limitation: The narrative is limited to what the main character thinks, observes, or hears from another character. Some authors try to get around this limitation by using dialogue in which one character briefs the protagonist to get information across to the reader. Overuse of this device may be an indication that the author has not mastered first person.

An omniscient omniscient point of view allows for much greater freedom and flexibility, in that the author can move around inside the story and enter the thoughts and feelings of any of the characters. The disadvantage is that it can make the story more difficult for young readers, as they often have difficulty following transitions from one character to the next. A point of view allows for much greater freedom and flexibility, in that the author can move around inside the story and enter the thoughts and feelings of any of the characters. The disadvantage is that it can make the story more difficult for young readers, as they often have difficulty following transitions from one character to the next. A limited omniscient limited omniscient point of view, in which the author uses third person but sticks to the viewpoint of one character, is easier for young readers to comprehend. point of view, in which the author uses third person but sticks to the viewpoint of one character, is easier for young readers to comprehend.

An objective objective point of view uses third person but does not enter the mind of a character at all. Rather, action is described completely by means of outside observations. This point of view is used effectively in realistic animal stories that dramatize action in the natural world. It becomes more challenging when used with human characters, because it requires readers to make their own connections between explicit actions and implicit emotions. point of view uses third person but does not enter the mind of a character at all. Rather, action is described completely by means of outside observations. This point of view is used effectively in realistic animal stories that dramatize action in the natural world. It becomes more challenging when used with human characters, because it requires readers to make their own connections between explicit actions and implicit emotions.

Children's authors sometimes bring together multiple points of view to construct a distinctive narrative. In Bull Run Bull Run, Paul Fleischman used sixteen points of view to build a patchwork of history in a fictional account of the Civil War battle. In Nothing But the Truth Nothing But the Truth, Avi employs dialogues, diary entries, memos, letters, and transcripts to build an unusual objective point of view from which readers must draw their own conclusions. In both these novels, the idea of point of view becomes the theme.

Whichever point of view an author chooses, he or she should remain consistent throughout. If he or she chooses to tell a story in the first person from the point of view of an eleven-year-old main character, he or she must stay with it. He or she cannot enter the mind of the character's mother or best friend or tell us things that the character hasn't experienced. When you evaluate point of view, keep the following questions in mind: Who is the narrator of the story, and what is this narrator likely to know?

SETTING.

Setting in a novel can either function as a backdrop backdrop or as an or as an integral integral part of the story. As the name suggests, backdrop settings are created from vivid descriptive details that may be interesting in and of themselves, but the story could easily be moved to another setting without losing much. Jack Gantos's popular series of books about Joey Pigza, for example, could be set in any contemporary American town. They draw their power from plot and characters, not from their setting. part of the story. As the name suggests, backdrop settings are created from vivid descriptive details that may be interesting in and of themselves, but the story could easily be moved to another setting without losing much. Jack Gantos's popular series of books about Joey Pigza, for example, could be set in any contemporary American town. They draw their power from plot and characters, not from their setting.

Other novels would disintegrate if they were removed from their settings, because setting is integral to the action and characters. This is especially true of historical novels in which setting often functions to clarify the conflict in the story, as happens in Lois Lowry's Number the Stars Number the Stars. An integral setting must be clearly described and made as real as the characters so that the reader can not only picture it but feel it.

Aside from clarifying conflict clarifying conflict, integral settings function in several ways. The setting can act as an antagonist antagonist as it invariably does in survival stories since the protagonist is always at the mercy of threats from the environment. In as it invariably does in survival stories since the protagonist is always at the mercy of threats from the environment. In Holes Holes, for example, the desert setting of Camp Green Lake makes day-to-day life difficult for Stanley, who must labor under the hot sun all day, digging holes. But it becomes even more antagonistic when he and Zero leave the camp and head out on their own into the barren wilderness.

Settings frequently serve to illuminate character illuminate character. In her sequence of books about the Logan family, Mildred D. Taylor has created the fictional Depression-era small town, Strawberry, Mississippi, to explore race relations and to show the strength and dignity of the African-American family.

Setting can also operate on a symbolic symbolic level by encompa.s.sing two levels of meaning simultaneously. In level by encompa.s.sing two levels of meaning simultaneously. In The Underneath The Underneath, setting functions in this way, as the "underneath" places are set in opposition to symbolize both safety and danger. This also extends to looking underneath the surface of a creature's skin to see deep inside its soul.

STYLE.

Language dictates style in all writing. With respect to fiction, we look at both the literal and metaphorical ways an author uses language. What words has the author chosen and how have they been put together? Literary devices Literary devices enrich the language of the novel and evoke emotional responses in the reader. Authors of children's fiction face a special challenge, as they write for an audience with limited experiences when it comes to understanding the symbolic use of language. Outstanding children's fiction uses literary devices geared directly toward young readers. enrich the language of the novel and evoke emotional responses in the reader. Authors of children's fiction face a special challenge, as they write for an audience with limited experiences when it comes to understanding the symbolic use of language. Outstanding children's fiction uses literary devices geared directly toward young readers.

In Words of Stone Words of Stone, Kevin Henkes uses a remarkable range of literary devices, all based on a child's worldview. His prose is filled with connotations connotations related to sensual childhood observations of people and the natural world of the backyard, making his metaphorical use of language easily understandable to child readers. I will use examples from related to sensual childhood observations of people and the natural world of the backyard, making his metaphorical use of language easily understandable to child readers. I will use examples from Words of Stone Words of Stone to define the various types of literary devices. to define the various types of literary devices.

Imagery is the use of words that appeal to any of the senses: sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch. is the use of words that appeal to any of the senses: sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch. Words of Stone Words of Stone is filled with child-friendly imagery: Blaze states that Joselle lives in "a house the color of celery." He notes that she "smelled dusty, like a ladybug" and he makes a reference to his own "blister-smooth skin." is filled with child-friendly imagery: Blaze states that Joselle lives in "a house the color of celery." He notes that she "smelled dusty, like a ladybug" and he makes a reference to his own "blister-smooth skin."

Figurative language refers to the use of words in a nonliteral way. There are numerous examples of figurative language in refers to the use of words in a nonliteral way. There are numerous examples of figurative language in Words of Stone Words of Stone, beginning with the t.i.tle itself which signifies the difficulty Blaze has in communicating with his father, as well as Joselle's tendency to build walls between herself and others by lying. A common type of figurative language is personification personification, which means that nonhuman objects or animals are invested with human characteristics. Henkes uses personification when Blaze's father tosses a key across the breakfast table and it "stopped right beside Blaze's plate, kissing his fork." Simile Simile, the comparison of two dissimilar things, generally with the words "like" or "as," is another common type of figurative language we see throughout the book. After Blaze spends a day playing outside, "dirt stuck to his body like bread crumbs," and when he speaks to Joselle, his voice is "as quiet as insect wings." Metaphors Metaphors make implied comparisons. Henkes uses stones metaphorically throughout the novel on several different levels. These objects for serious outdoor play used by both Blaze and Joselle-by Blaze to mark the graves of his imaginary friends and by Joselle to spell out mean-spirited messages to Blaze-are linked by implication to the stone on Blaze's mother's grave. Once Blaze and Joselle resolve their differences, he observes, "the stones were white moons that bled together." make implied comparisons. Henkes uses stones metaphorically throughout the novel on several different levels. These objects for serious outdoor play used by both Blaze and Joselle-by Blaze to mark the graves of his imaginary friends and by Joselle to spell out mean-spirited messages to Blaze-are linked by implication to the stone on Blaze's mother's grave. Once Blaze and Joselle resolve their differences, he observes, "the stones were white moons that bled together."

Hyperbole, the use of exaggeration, characterizes the speech of melodramatic Joselle: "For the first couple of years of your life, you were probably no bigger than a salt shaker.... I'll bet your parents have photographs from when you were three, but they tell you they were from the day you were born." By way of contrast, Blaze is often characterized with understatement understatement to underscore his timid nature: "Blaze didn't particularly like spiders, except from a distance." to underscore his timid nature: "Blaze didn't particularly like spiders, except from a distance."

Kevin Henkes also uses sound sound devices to enrich the language of his novels. Some examples: devices to enrich the language of his novels. Some examples: Alliteration: the repet.i.tion of initial consonants, as we see with both s s and and l l in the phrase "legs scissoring the sunlight," which imitates the sound of scissors cutting. in the phrase "legs scissoring the sunlight," which imitates the sound of scissors cutting.

a.s.sonance: the repet.i.tion of similar vowel sounds. "Puddles dotted Floy's lawn like scattered mirrors." The long vowel sounds in the first four words come in quick succession like dripping water.

Consonance: the close repet.i.tion of consonant sounds. Note the repet.i.tion of the fluttering l l sound when Joselle's grandmother tells her: "Your eyelids are the color of my needlepoint lilacs." sound when Joselle's grandmother tells her: "Your eyelids are the color of my needlepoint lilacs."

Onomatopoeia: the use of words that sound like their meanings. We see an example of this when Blaze's father allows him to help attach canvas to frames. "The staple gun had a nasty little kick that jolted Blaze's arm, and it made a whoos.h.i.+ng noise that reminded Blaze of getting a vaccination."

Rhythm: the pattern of words in a sentence, which gives it a particular flow, or cadence cadence. Note the way Henkes uses rhythm in the following sentence to give readers a playful sense of somersaulting downhill: "Summer afternoons on the hill smelled of heat and dirt and gra.s.s and weeds and laziness."

Allusion makes reference to literature or historical events that are part of our common cultural heritage. It is less frequently used as a device in children's books simply because children typically do not have the necessary background to recognize and appreciate it. It is not, however, unheard of. Lois Lowry provides a stunning example of literary allusion in makes reference to literature or historical events that are part of our common cultural heritage. It is less frequently used as a device in children's books simply because children typically do not have the necessary background to recognize and appreciate it. It is not, however, unheard of. Lois Lowry provides a stunning example of literary allusion in Number the Stars Number the Stars when Annemarie's courageous journey through the forest to take a basket of food to her uncle clearly echoes the story of "Little Red Riding Hood." Even though this is a folktale that most children know well, they might not expect it to show up in a novel. For this reason, Lowry draws a clear connection to it earlier in the novel with a scene in which Annemarie tells the story to her younger sister at bedtime. when Annemarie's courageous journey through the forest to take a basket of food to her uncle clearly echoes the story of "Little Red Riding Hood." Even though this is a folktale that most children know well, they might not expect it to show up in a novel. For this reason, Lowry draws a clear connection to it earlier in the novel with a scene in which Annemarie tells the story to her younger sister at bedtime.

Diction is another aspect of an author's style that enriches the manner in which a story is told. Sometimes referred to as the author's is another aspect of an author's style that enriches the manner in which a story is told. Sometimes referred to as the author's voice voice, diction injects prose with the flavor of a particular time and place by using words and grammatical structures native to the story's setting and characters. Diction can appear as distinctive in both dialogue and narrative. In dialogue, an author uses diction to approximate the way spoken language sounds. In narrative, diction creates a sense of the story as the characters who live in it might tell it themselves.

Christopher Paul Curtis is especially skilled at enlivening his novels with diction in both narrative and dialogue. Consider the following pa.s.sage from Bud, Not Buddy Bud, Not Buddy, a novel set during the 1930s: Billy'd stole a nickel from somewhere and held it up so's the buffalo on it was looking out at us. He pretended the buffalo was talking, it had a deep voice like you'd figure a buffalo would. It said, "Billy, my man, go ahead and bet this little no-momma fool that he don't know who his daddy is, then I'd have have another nickel to bang around in your pocket with." another nickel to bang around in your pocket with."

Even in the narrative, Curtis's main character sounds as though he is speaking directly to the reader in his natural conversational style, and his dialogue gives us a sense of Billy's character. Compare this with the language he uses in another novel set in 1860, Elijah of Buxton Elijah of Buxton: "Elijah, you ain't gonna believe what Mr. Travis is fixing to teach us 'bout this morning!"I waren't gonna get myself worked up 'bout none none of Mr. Travis's lessons. I ain't trying to say I'm smarter than Cooter, but I notice things a little better and carefuller than him, and Mr. Travis ain't showed no signs atall that he could come up with any lesson that was worth getting this excited over. of Mr. Travis's lessons. I ain't trying to say I'm smarter than Cooter, but I notice things a little better and carefuller than him, and Mr. Travis ain't showed no signs atall that he could come up with any lesson that was worth getting this excited over.

Although both books use colloquial black English in the dialogue and the narrative, it's clear from the language that they are set in two different time periods.

Tone is the reflection of the author's att.i.tude toward the story. It corresponds to the tone of voice in spoken language; however, since we can't hear a tone of voice in writing, the author conveys this sense through style. The tone in a children's novel may be humorous, as it is in is the reflection of the author's att.i.tude toward the story. It corresponds to the tone of voice in spoken language; however, since we can't hear a tone of voice in writing, the author conveys this sense through style. The tone in a children's novel may be humorous, as it is in Elijah of Buxton Elijah of Buxton, or serious as it is in After Tupac and D Foster After Tupac and D Foster. In both these examples, the tone gives us an idea how the author feels about the story.

In children's books, we sometimes see instances of a condescending tone, which indicates that the author believes his or her ideas are really too complex for children to understand, so he or she must simplify it for them by explaining everything or trying to make it cute. We see, even more frequently, books with a sentimental tone. The latter often implies that the author believes all the world's great problems could be easily solved if they were viewed through the innocent eyes of a child. Other times a sentimental tone reveals that the author is fascinated by his own childhood but cares very little about the childhood of others, namely his readers.

To evaluate style, look at the ways in which an author uses language. Do you notice a distinctive style? How does the story sound when it is read aloud? What literary devices do you notice? How do these relate to the reality of child readers?

THEME.

Theme is often one of the most elusive aspects of fiction, but it is an important one, because it answers the question: What is the story about? When you ask children this question, you often get a recitation of plot details in response. But theme is more than what happened in a story. Theme reflects the overall idea the author was trying to get across to readers in the first place. The fact that a child has difficulty articulating this deeper meaning doesn't necessarily mean that the theme wasn't understood.

All the pieces of a work of fiction-plot, characters, point of view, setting, and style-add up to its theme; that is, a significant truth that lies just beneath the surface of the story. If you, as an adult reader, have difficulty determining what, exactly, the theme of the book is, this may be an indication that the author did not have a clear theme in mind to start with or was unsuccessful in getting the idea across to readers through the story as it now stands. Conversely, many books are easily summed up in a phrase, which may suggest that the author did not succeed in combining fictional elements to give depth to the story.

When we examine theme in a work of children's fiction, it is important for us, as adults, to keep in mind that children are new to the idea of "significant truth." A truth that is commonplace to an experienced adult reader may be a real eye-opener for a child, particularly if the child is given the opportunity to discover meaning on his or her own. The thrill of discovery is the great promise a book holds for a reader.

In many outstanding works of fiction, the underlying truth, or theme, is left open to interpretation. The author sets the stage for discovery, but individual readers must be trusted to bring their own experiences to the reading of any book. When an author succeeds in writing a gripping story with a fresh style, peopled with characters who seem real and alive, her work is completed. The rest she leaves in the hands of the readers.

CHAPTER 8.

Writing a Review.

Children's book reviewing has had a long, rich history in the United States. In his landmark study, The Rise of Children's Book Reviewing in America, 18651881 The Rise of Children's Book Reviewing in America, 18651881, Richard L. Darling found that children's books were regularly reviewed in mid-to late-nineteenth-century literary monthlies and popular magazines by reviewers who showed a considerable understanding of children and their books. More than one hundred years later, this sort of understanding continues to play a crucial role in children's book reviewing. Then, as now, the function of reviews appearing in the popular press was to call new books to the attention of potential readers, or, as Virginia Woolf succinctly described it: "partly to sort current literature; partly to advertise the author; partly to inform the public." This attention to new children's books in general periodical literature was carried well into the twentieth century with regular children's book review columns appearing in publications such as the New York Herald Tribune New York Herald Tribune, The New York Times Book Review The New York Times Book Review, the Chicago Tribune Chicago Tribune, and The Sat.u.r.day Review of Literature The Sat.u.r.day Review of Literature.

With the development of children's library services in the early twentieth century, reviewing began to serve another function: to provide children's librarians with a guide for selecting books. Booklist Booklist, a professional library journal published by the American Library a.s.sociation and consisting solely of reviews of new t.i.tles recommended for purchase, has included a children's books section since its inception in 1905. Other general library periodicals, such as Kirkus Reviews Kirkus Reviews and and Library Journal Library Journal, included children's book reviews as well. The Horn Book The Horn Book magazine, founded in 1924 by Bertha Mahony Miller and Elinor Whitney Field, was entirely devoted to articles and reviews of children's books; and throughout much of the twentieth century it was very influential in setting contemporary standards for excellence in children's books. In 1954 the children's book section of magazine, founded in 1924 by Bertha Mahony Miller and Elinor Whitney Field, was entirely devoted to articles and reviews of children's books; and throughout much of the twentieth century it was very influential in setting contemporary standards for excellence in children's books. In 1954 the children's book section of Library Journal Library Journal broke off to establish its own publication, broke off to establish its own publication, School Library Journal School Library Journal, that strives to review every book published for children whether it is recommended for purchase or not. At the University of Chicago at Urbana-Champaign The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books was established in 1945; it remains the only national journal to consist entirely of children's book reviews. Taken as a whole, these five journals ( was established in 1945; it remains the only national journal to consist entirely of children's book reviews. Taken as a whole, these five journals (Booklist, The Bulletin for the Center of Children's Books The Bulletin for the Center of Children's Books, The Horn Book The Horn Book, Kirkus Reviews Kirkus Reviews, and School Library Journal School Library Journal) comprise the basis for most school and public library book selection in the United States.

Many school and public library systems have created their own internal review processes that may require librarians to prepare written or oral reviews of newly published books being considered for purchase. Others use group discussion as a means of evaluating books and sharpening critical skills. With the rise of the internet, children's book reviewing has begun to take place online, often in blogs that are mostly or entirely devoted to providing reviews of new children's books. The quality of these reviews varies, but they cannot be entirely discounted; in fact, many of the blogs with children's book reviews have been created by librarians with professional training in book evaluation. Blogs offer the added advantage of immediacy and direct feedback from readers.

At the very least, children's librarians read a wide selection of reviews from the professional review journals listed above in order to make decisions about which books to purchase for the library collection. While some purchase decisions can be made quickly based on popular demand or professional wisdom, most selections are made with a great deal of care and deliberation, based, in whole or in part, on reviews. The reviewer, then, owes it to her audience to use care and deliberation in preparing a review.

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN REVIEWING AND LITERARY CRITICISM.

Although the words "review" and "criticism" are often used interchangeably, most experts differentiate between the two by pointing out that reviews are limited by time and s.p.a.ce; that is, a review is published as close as possible to the publication date of the book under consideration and the reviewer is generally limited to a set number of words.

In an eloquent essay ent.i.tled "Out on a Limb with the Critics: Some Random Thoughts on the Present State of the Criticism of Children's Literature," Paul Heins, former editor of The Horn Book The Horn Book, drew the following distinction: "Reviewing...is only concerned with what is imminent in publis.h.i.+ng, with what is being produced at the present time; and does its job well by selecting, cla.s.sifying, and evaluating-evaluating for the time being. Criticism deals with literature in perspective and places a book in a larger context...."

This is not to say that criticism should not enter into reviewing. In fact, Heins makes the point in the same article that it would be virtually impossible to keep criticism out of a review: "Any form of literary cla.s.sification, comparison, or evaluation must also be considered a form of criticism."

PREPARING TO REVIEW.

Because the reviewer does not have the advantage of time, it is to his or her advantage to have a broad knowledge of contemporary children's literature as a context for "selecting, cla.s.sifying, and evaluating." A solid background in the literature also helps the reviewer put the book into a context so that he or she can answer the questions: Are there other books like this one? If so, how does it compare to them? What does it offer that is unique?

SELECTING BOOKS TO REVIEW.

When you write reviews for a professional journal or as part of an internal review process, chances are you will not have a choice about which books you will review, since they will most likely be a.s.signed to you. These a.s.signments may be made in accordance with your own particular areas of interest or expertise; however, if you are given a book about which you simply cannot be objective, return it so that it can be a.s.signed to another reviewer who can give it a fair review. Part of any book review editor's job is to match books with reviewers, and he or she will no doubt appreciate your honesty if you feel you are not the right reviewer for the book. Since objectivity is an important part of every reviewer's approach, it is best not to review books written by personal friends (or enemies) and to avoid reviewing books that give you a chance to air a complaint or grind an ax.

If you are reviewing for a general publication, such as your local newspaper, you may have the opportunity to choose the books you will review. There are no hard-and-fast rules about what to select, but it is best to choose a book that is current, readily available, and likely to be of interest to the audience for whom you are writing. It may be the latest book by a well-known popular writer or a first book from a promising newcomer. You may choose a book to fit the current season (a great new biography about Abraham Lincoln for Presidents' Day, for example), a book that can be linked to a current news event, or one that you know will be of local interest. When you can articulate exactly why you have chosen to review one particular book over all the others at this particular time, you have already begun to write an opening sentence that will link the book to your audience.

READING AND NOTE TAKING.

A reviewer's first obligation is to give a book a thorough and careful reading. There are, of course, different ways to approach this task. In her study of children's book reviewers, Kathleen W. Craver found that some reviewers prefer to read a book all the way through, jotting down an occasional note along the way, and then return for a second reading to make more detailed notes. Others take careful notes during their initial reading and read straight through the second time around to get a better sense of the author's style and pacing.

Before you begin to read, try to place the book in its broad category by type or genre: Is it nonfiction, a folktale, a transitional book? Usually (but not always) the cla.s.sification is fairly straightforward. Once you have determined the category, you can use the corresponding chapter in From Cover to Cover From Cover to Cover as your framework for evaluation. As you read, you can jot down notes to outline the book's structure or the main developments in the plot; to respond to questions you ask yourself as part of the critical process; and to keep track of questions the book under review raises in your mind. These questions may require you to consult outside sources before you begin to write a review. as your framework for evaluation. As you read, you can jot down notes to outline the book's structure or the main developments in the plot; to respond to questions you ask yourself as part of the critical process; and to keep track of questions the book under review raises in your mind. These questions may require you to consult outside sources before you begin to write a review.

According to Craver's study, some reviewers write their review immediately after the second reading and some take up to a week to mull things over before beginning to write. Regardless of their approach, all the reviewers cited rereading and note taking as an essential part of the review process.

CONSULTING OUTSIDE SOURCES.

Many of the reviewers who took part in Craver's study also indicated that they frequently sought outside information to a.s.sist them with a review. This generally consisted of discussing the book with a colleague or reading it aloud to a group of children to get their responses. It is not considered cheating to ask others for their opinions of a book you are reviewing. In fact, if you have kept an open mind toward the book, the responses of others can greatly enrich your critical perspective.

Many critics find it especially helpful to get responses from actual children. If there is an easy and natural way for you to do this, such as sharing a picture book with preschoolers during a regular library story time, by all means take advantage of the opportunity. But use the experience as one aspect of your critical approach, not the be-all and end-all of your a.s.sessment. And, please, never allow your review to sink into a description of your three-year-old daughter's response to the book. Because your relations.h.i.+p with the child is of a personal, rather than professional, nature, this is not only irrelevant and unprofessional, it is self-indulgent. Save it for your annual holiday form letter.

In the course of your note taking, if you jotted down any questions that require some outside fact-checking, this is the time to do it. When you are reviewing a nonfiction book, you may want to consult other books on the same subject for comparison. This will broaden your own background knowledge of the subject itself, and it will help you think about the book you are reviewing in contrast to other books for children on the same subject. You can mention related children's books in your review to compare and contrast the new book to others that are available. Librarians, in particular, appreciate these sorts of critical insights; however, it is important that you don't allow yourself to get carried away. Your primary responsibility is to review one book, not to write about every book that has been published to date on the same subject.

We have all had the experience of reading a work of fiction in which certain historical, regional, or cultural details just don't ring true. This can raise questions such as: Would it have been likely for a nineteenth-century Amish family to join a wagon train? Did the Iroquois live in tipis? Is the black English an author uses in dialogue accurate? You may want to follow up on some of these questions, especially if it is an essential part of the book. Using the question about the Amish family as an example: If the family itself is the central focus of the book and their joining the wagon train a major factor in the plot, it would be important for you to do some background research to answer the question. If they are merely mentioned briefly in one paragraph in chapter 4, you may not want to spend a lot of time pursuing it.

Occasionally, reviewers seek the opinions of content specialists to help determine the accuracy or authenticity of a book that raises questions. If you suspect there is a problem with a book that claims one can avoid contracting HIV by showering after unprotected s.e.x, for example, you can double-check the facts with a local expert to confirm your suspicions. If you do consult a content specialist, remember that while a content specialist is an expert in his or her particular field and is able to evaluate the accuracy of what what information is provided, you are the expert when it comes to information is provided, you are the expert when it comes to how how this information is presented in a book for children. this information is presented in a book for children.

WHAT TO INCLUDE IN A BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATION.

All reviews must open with a bibliographic citation that includes details such as author, t.i.tle, and publisher. Although reviewers have many choices to make concerning the content of their reviews, bibliographic citations are fairly standard.

Reviews that are published in general publications such as newspapers and popular magazines, typically include only a brief heading that includes t.i.tle (including subt.i.tle), author, ill.u.s.trator (if any), publisher, price, and sometimes the year of publication and number of pages. Every publication has its own in-house style for citations. You will need to include a complete citation at the head of your review. A standard style for citations appearing in general publication is: The London Eye Mystery. By Siobhan Dowd. David Fickling Books/Random House, 2008. 322 pages. $15.99 For an ill.u.s.trated book: The Graveyard Book. By Neil Gaiman. Ill.u.s.trated by Dave McKean. HarperCollins, 2008. 320 pages. $17.99 Since reviews that appear in professional review journals are used for book selection, the bibliographic citations are more detailed and always include the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) for both the trade and library binding. In addition, they also may include the Library of Congress (LC) number, publication date, and an indication as to whether the book was reviewed from galleys. The reviews themselves are generally arranged by the last name of the author, and that information appears first in bibliographic citations in review journals. Every journal's style for citing bibliographic information varies slightly but, for the most part, they contain the same information: Dowd, Siobhan. The London Eye Mystery The London Eye Mystery. David Fickling Books/Random House, 2008. 322 pages. Tr. $15.99, ISBN 978-0-375-84976-3; PLB $18.99, ISBN 978-0-375-94976-0 For an ill.u.s.trated book: Gaiman, Neil. The Graveyard Book The Graveyard Book. Ill.u.s.trated by Dave McKean. HarperCollins, 2008. 320 pages. Tr. $17.99, 978-0-06-053092-1; PLB $18.89, 978-0-06-053093-8 WRITING THE REVIEW.