The Notes Part 10

Anderson, Maxwell (18881959): American playwright, poet, and author who founded the Playwrights' Company. (18881959): American playwright, poet, and author who founded the Playwrights' Company.

Antonius, Marcus (c. 8330 BCE): Roman politician and general who supported Julius Caesar as military commander, started the Final War of the Roman Republic, and took Cleopatra as his lover. (c. 8330 BCE): Roman politician and general who supported Julius Caesar as military commander, started the Final War of the Roman Republic, and took Cleopatra as his lover.

Aptheker, Herbert (19152003): American Marxist historian and political activist who most notably researched African-American history. (19152003): American Marxist historian and political activist who most notably researched African-American history.

Aristotle (384322 BCE): Greek philosopher, student of Plato, and teacher to Alexander the Great. With Socrates and Plato, one of the founders of Western philosophy. (384322 BCE): Greek philosopher, student of Plato, and teacher to Alexander the Great. With Socrates and Plato, one of the founders of Western philosophy.

Barden, Graham (18961967): Democratic U.S. congressman from North Carolina. He served thirteen consecutive terms in the House and chaired the House Education Committee and, later, the Education and Labor Committee. (18961967): Democratic U.S. congressman from North Carolina. He served thirteen consecutive terms in the House and chaired the House Education Committee and, later, the Education and Labor Committee.

Bastiat, Claude-Frederic (18011850): French liberal theorist, member of the French a.s.sembly, and political economist known for his clever attacks on policies enacted by states to protect themselves. (18011850): French liberal theorist, member of the French a.s.sembly, and political economist known for his clever attacks on policies enacted by states to protect themselves.

Benton, William (19001973): U.S. senator from Connecticut and publisher of the (19001973): U.S. senator from Connecticut and publisher of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica. Active organizer of the United Nations.

Booth, William (18291912): British Methodist preacher and the founder and first general of the Salvation Army, then an evangelist organization that turned humanitarian. (18291912): British Methodist preacher and the founder and first general of the Salvation Army, then an evangelist organization that turned humanitarian.

Browning, Robert (18121889): Acclaimed Victorian poet and playwright known for his dramatic monologues. He influenced later poets with his method of building emotional sympathy for unsavory moral characters. (18121889): Acclaimed Victorian poet and playwright known for his dramatic monologues. He influenced later poets with his method of building emotional sympathy for unsavory moral characters.

Burke, Edmund (17291797): Irish philosopher, statesman, author, and orator known for supporting the American Revolution and opposing the French Revolution, as well as founding the philosophies of modern conservatism. (17291797): Irish philosopher, statesman, author, and orator known for supporting the American Revolution and opposing the French Revolution, as well as founding the philosophies of modern conservatism.

Carnegie, Dale (18881955): American lecturer and author of self-improvement, sales, and business books such as (18881955): American lecturer and author of self-improvement, sales, and business books such as How to Win Friends and Influence People How to Win Friends and Influence People.

Chambers, Whittaker (19011961): American writer and editor. Once a Communist Party USA member and Soviet spy, he later renounced communism and testified in the perjury and espionage trial of Alger Hiss. (19011961): American writer and editor. Once a Communist Party USA member and Soviet spy, he later renounced communism and testified in the perjury and espionage trial of Alger Hiss.

Chesterton, Gilbert (18741936): English writer who critiqued both conservatism and liberalism. He also wrote fantasy and detective fiction. (18741936): English writer who critiqued both conservatism and liberalism. He also wrote fantasy and detective fiction.

Churchill, Winston (18741965): British politician who served as the prime minister of the United Kingdom and led the Allied forces to victory in World War II. He was known for his oratorical skills and his wartime leaders.h.i.+p. (18741965): British politician who served as the prime minister of the United Kingdom and led the Allied forces to victory in World War II. He was known for his oratorical skills and his wartime leaders.h.i.+p.

Cicero, Marcus (10643 BCE): Roman theorist, linguist, and translator who introduced Romans to the schools of Greek philosophy. His correspondences with his friend Atticus introduced to Europe the art of letter writing. (10643 BCE): Roman theorist, linguist, and translator who introduced Romans to the schools of Greek philosophy. His correspondences with his friend Atticus introduced to Europe the art of letter writing.

Conant, James (18931978): Chemist, government official, and president of Harvard University. He was known for reforming Harvard and making it a world-cla.s.s inst.i.tution. (18931978): Chemist, government official, and president of Harvard University. He was known for reforming Harvard and making it a world-cla.s.s inst.i.tution.

Confucius (551479 BCE): Chinese social philosopher who emphasized morality in all worldly relations.h.i.+ps. His teachings are found in the (551479 BCE): Chinese social philosopher who emphasized morality in all worldly relations.h.i.+ps. His teachings are found in the a.n.a.lects of Confucius a.n.a.lects of Confucius.

Coolidge, Calvin (18721933): Thirtieth president of the United States, succeeding upon the death of Warren G. Harding in 1923. He was controversial for his downsizing of government programs and promotion of laissez-faire economics. (18721933): Thirtieth president of the United States, succeeding upon the death of Warren G. Harding in 1923. He was controversial for his downsizing of government programs and promotion of laissez-faire economics.

Cotton, John (15851652): Core member of the New England Puritan ministers who was influential in shaping church structure and rules. (15851652): Core member of the New England Puritan ministers who was influential in shaping church structure and rules.

Denning, Alfred "Tom" (18991999): British soldier, lawyer, judge, and mathematician. He became King's Counsel in 1938 and campaigned against the common-law principle of precedent. (18991999): British soldier, lawyer, judge, and mathematician. He became King's Counsel in 1938 and campaigned against the common-law principle of precedent.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo (18031882): American poet, lecturer, and transcendentalist who championed freedom and explored the spiritual relations.h.i.+p between man and the world. (18031882): American poet, lecturer, and transcendentalist who championed freedom and explored the spiritual relations.h.i.+p between man and the world.

Frankl, Viktor (19051997): Austrian psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor who wrote the bestselling book (19051997): Austrian psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor who wrote the bestselling book Man's Search for Meaning Man's Search for Meaning.

Fulbright, J. William (19051995): U.S. senator who represented Arkansas. As a Southern Democrat, he opposed the House Un-American Activities Committee and established an international exchange program that now bears his name. (19051995): U.S. senator who represented Arkansas. As a Southern Democrat, he opposed the House Un-American Activities Committee and established an international exchange program that now bears his name.

Gandhi, Mahatma (18691948): "Father" of India, an honorific applied to him because he politically and ideologically led the movement for India's independence from England. He advocated a particular method of civil disobedience known as (18691948): "Father" of India, an honorific applied to him because he politically and ideologically led the movement for India's independence from England. He advocated a particular method of civil disobedience known as satyagraha satyagraha.

Garfield, James (18311881): Major general in the Civil War and the twentieth president of the United States. He accomplished very little during his 200 days in office, and he was a.s.sa.s.sinated on July 2, 1881. (18311881): Major general in the Civil War and the twentieth president of the United States. He accomplished very little during his 200 days in office, and he was a.s.sa.s.sinated on July 2, 1881.

Gladstone, William (18091898): British liberal statesman and scholar of Homer, known for his four terms as prime minister and his famous feud with Conservative leader Benjamin Disraeli. (18091898): British liberal statesman and scholar of Homer, known for his four terms as prime minister and his famous feud with Conservative leader Benjamin Disraeli.

Goebbels, Joseph (18971945): German politician and minister of propaganda in n.a.z.i Germany. He was the architect of the (18971945): German politician and minister of propaganda in n.a.z.i Germany. He was the architect of the Kristallnacht Kristallnacht attack on German Jews that precipitated the genocide, and he was famous for his oratorical skills. attack on German Jews that precipitated the genocide, and he was famous for his oratorical skills.

Gompers, Samuel (18501924): English-born leader of the American labor movement. He founded the American Federation of Labor and worked to raise wages for workers. (18501924): English-born leader of the American labor movement. He founded the American Federation of Labor and worked to raise wages for workers.

Gromyko, Andrey (19091989): Soviet statesman through the Cold War. He was responsible for much of Soviet foreign policy, including the arms limitations treaties. (19091989): Soviet statesman through the Cold War. He was responsible for much of Soviet foreign policy, including the arms limitations treaties.

Hamilton, Alexander (17551804): Founding father and economist. He wrote most of the (17551804): Founding father and economist. He wrote most of the Federalist Papers Federalist Papers and was the first U.S. secretary of the treasury. He died in a duel with Aaron Burr. and was the first U.S. secretary of the treasury. He died in a duel with Aaron Burr.

Hand, Billings Learned (18721961): United States judge and judicial philosopher who served on the District Court for the Southern District of New York and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. He is often quoted for his elegant legal thought. (18721961): United States judge and judicial philosopher who served on the District Court for the Southern District of New York and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. He is often quoted for his elegant legal thought.

Hannah, John (19021991): President of Michigan State College (now Michigan State University) for twenty-eight years. He later became the head of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). (19021991): President of Michigan State College (now Michigan State University) for twenty-eight years. He later became the head of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

Harris, Sydney (19171986): American journalist for the (19171986): American journalist for the Chicago Daily News Chicago Daily News and the and the Chicago Sun-Times Chicago Sun-Times. His column, "Strictly Personal," was widely syndicated in North America.

Henning, Jack (19152009): Former U.S. amba.s.sador and undersecretary of labor. He was a defender of the minimum wage and civil rights. (19152009): Former U.S. amba.s.sador and undersecretary of labor. He was a defender of the minimum wage and civil rights.

Henry, Patrick (17361799): Founding Father and leading anti-Federalist, he served as the first and sixth governor of Virginia. He is best remembered for the speech in which he said, "Give me liberty or give me death." (17361799): Founding Father and leading anti-Federalist, he served as the first and sixth governor of Virginia. He is best remembered for the speech in which he said, "Give me liberty or give me death."

Hill, Benjamin (18231882): U.S. representative and senator as well as Confederate senator for the state of Georgia during the Civil War. He was one of few prewar politicians to achieve postwar success. (18231882): U.S. representative and senator as well as Confederate senator for the state of Georgia during the Civil War. He was one of few prewar politicians to achieve postwar success.

Hitler, Adolf (18891945): Austrian-born German politician who was appointed chancellor of Germany and transformed it into a fascist state. He is responsible for the Holocaust and the outbreak of World War II. (18891945): Austrian-born German politician who was appointed chancellor of Germany and transformed it into a fascist state. He is responsible for the Holocaust and the outbreak of World War II.

Holland, Josiah Gilbert (18191881): American novelist and poet who wrote under the pseudonym "Timothy t.i.tcomb." (18191881): American novelist and poet who wrote under the pseudonym "Timothy t.i.tcomb."

Holmes, Oliver Wendell (18411935): American jurist who served as a.s.sociate justice of the Supreme Court from 1902 to 1932. He was known for being one of the most influential common-law judges, with efforts to support New Deal regulations. (18411935): American jurist who served as a.s.sociate justice of the Supreme Court from 1902 to 1932. He was known for being one of the most influential common-law judges, with efforts to support New Deal regulations.

Hoover, Herbert (18741964): Thirty-first president of the United States. He was a mining engineer and author who served as the secretary of commerce. As president he unsuccessfully tried to combat the Great Depression. (18741964): Thirty-first president of the United States. He was a mining engineer and author who served as the secretary of commerce. As president he unsuccessfully tried to combat the Great Depression.

Hoover, J. Edgar (18951972): First director and instrumental founder of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. His controversial tenure led to the instatement of ten-year term limitations for FBI directors. (18951972): First director and instrumental founder of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. His controversial tenure led to the instatement of ten-year term limitations for FBI directors.

Hutchins, Robert (18991977): Educational philosopher, dean of Yale Law School, and president of the University of Chicago. (18991977): Educational philosopher, dean of Yale Law School, and president of the University of Chicago.

Ibn Khaldoun (13321406): North African polymath whose expertise lay in astronomy, economics, history, law, and nutrition. He is considered the father of the social sciences, particularly in the East. (13321406): North African polymath whose expertise lay in astronomy, economics, history, law, and nutrition. He is considered the father of the social sciences, particularly in the East.

Jefferson, Thomas (17431826): Third president of the United States, Founding Father, and the princ.i.p.al author of the Declaration of Independence. He promoted republicanism and is consistently ranked among the greatest U.S. presidents. (17431826): Third president of the United States, Founding Father, and the princ.i.p.al author of the Declaration of Independence. He promoted republicanism and is consistently ranked among the greatest U.S. presidents.

Johnson, Hiram (18661945): American progressive who served as the twenty-third governor of California and later as a U.S. senator. He became a staunch isolationist, opposing the League of Nations and the United Nations. (18661945): American progressive who served as the twenty-third governor of California and later as a U.S. senator. He became a staunch isolationist, opposing the League of Nations and the United Nations.

Kennedy, John F. (19171963): Thirty-fifth president of the United States. He was beloved during his short presidency and presided over the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Cuban missile crisis, the s.p.a.ce race, and the beginnings of the African-American civil rights movement. He was a.s.sa.s.sinated in 1963. (19171963): Thirty-fifth president of the United States. He was beloved during his short presidency and presided over the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Cuban missile crisis, the s.p.a.ce race, and the beginnings of the African-American civil rights movement. He was a.s.sa.s.sinated in 1963.

Khrushchev, Nikita (18941971): Leader of the Soviet Union during parts of the Cold War, including the Cuban missile crisis. He was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization and liberalization of domestic policy in the Soviet Union. (18941971): Leader of the Soviet Union during parts of the Cold War, including the Cuban missile crisis. He was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization and liberalization of domestic policy in the Soviet Union.

Krock, Arthur (18861974): American journalist and Was.h.i.+ngton correspondent for the (18861974): American journalist and Was.h.i.+ngton correspondent for the New York Times New York Times. Three-time Pulitzer Prize winner and recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Lenin (Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov, 18701924): Russian Marxist revolutionary and Communist politician. He led the October Revolution of 1917 and fought to establish a socialist economic system and maintain Communist control through the Russian Civil War. (Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov, 18701924): Russian Marxist revolutionary and Communist politician. He led the October Revolution of 1917 and fought to establish a socialist economic system and maintain Communist control through the Russian Civil War.

Lewis, C. S. (18981963): Irish-born British novelist and Christian theologian. He is best known for his children's fiction, especially (18981963): Irish-born British novelist and Christian theologian. He is best known for his children's fiction, especially The Chronicles of Narnia The Chronicles of Narnia.

Lieber, Francis (18001872): German-American political theorist and jurist. He is widely known as the author of the (18001872): German-American political theorist and jurist. He is widely known as the author of the Lieber Code Lieber Code-a code of conduct for troops during wartime-during the American Civil War.

Lincoln, Abraham (18091865): Sixteenth president of the United States. He issued the Emanc.i.p.ation Proclamation, freeing slaves, in 1863; led the nation through the Civil War; and was a.s.sa.s.sinated in April 1865. (18091865): Sixteenth president of the United States. He issued the Emanc.i.p.ation Proclamation, freeing slaves, in 1863; led the nation through the Civil War; and was a.s.sa.s.sinated in April 1865.

Lippmann, Walter (18891974): American reporter, commentator, and intellectual who introduced the concept of the Cold War and was twice awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his news column, "Today and Tomorrow." (18891974): American reporter, commentator, and intellectual who introduced the concept of the Cold War and was twice awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his news column, "Today and Tomorrow."

Macaulay, Thomas (18001859): British poet and Whig politician who wrote extensively on British history and served as secretary of war from 1839 to 1841. (18001859): British poet and Whig politician who wrote extensively on British history and served as secretary of war from 1839 to 1841.

MacLean, Alistair (19221987): Scottish novelist who wrote thrillers and adventure stories under the pseudonym "Ian Stuart." (19221987): Scottish novelist who wrote thrillers and adventure stories under the pseudonym "Ian Stuart."

Madison, James (17511836): Fourth president of the United States and princ.i.p.al drafter of the U.S. Const.i.tution. He was a Founding Father whose belief in individual liberty led to the Bill of Rights. He worked closely with George Was.h.i.+ngton to establish the new federal government. (17511836): Fourth president of the United States and princ.i.p.al drafter of the U.S. Const.i.tution. He was a Founding Father whose belief in individual liberty led to the Bill of Rights. He worked closely with George Was.h.i.+ngton to establish the new federal government.

Magee, John Gillespie, Jr. (19221941): Anglo-American aviator and poet who served in the Royal Canadian Air Force and died in a midair collision during World War II. (19221941): Anglo-American aviator and poet who served in the Royal Canadian Air Force and died in a midair collision during World War II.

Mao Zedong (18931976): Han Chinese revolutionary and Communist who led the People's Republic of China from its establishment in 1949 until his death. His political strategies are collectively known as Maoism, and he is said to have laid the foundations for modern China. Because his social and political programs also cost millions of Chinese lives, his legacy is controversial. (18931976): Han Chinese revolutionary and Communist who led the People's Republic of China from its establishment in 1949 until his death. His political strategies are collectively known as Maoism, and he is said to have laid the foundations for modern China. Because his social and political programs also cost millions of Chinese lives, his legacy is controversial.

Marshall, Henry (1954 ): National Football League athlete who played for the Kansas City Chiefs from 1976 to 1987. (1954 ): National Football League athlete who played for the Kansas City Chiefs from 1976 to 1987.

McCracken, Paul (1915 ): American economist who chaired the President's Council of Economic Advisors under President Nixon and attempted to curb inflation. He now teaches at the University of Michigan. (1915 ): American economist who chaired the President's Council of Economic Advisors under President Nixon and attempted to curb inflation. He now teaches at the University of Michigan.

McCulloch, John Ramsay ( (17891864): Leading Scottish economist in the Ricardian school. He was an early advocate of advanced statistical a.n.a.lysis and the publication of economic data.

McGovern, George (1922 ): Historian and former U.S. representative, senator, and Democratic presidential nominee. He lost badly to Richard Nixon in the 1972 presidential election. He has since served as amba.s.sador to the U.N. on World Hunger and was named 2008 World Food Prize Laureate. (1922 ): Historian and former U.S. representative, senator, and Democratic presidential nominee. He lost badly to Richard Nixon in the 1972 presidential election. He has since served as amba.s.sador to the U.N. on World Hunger and was named 2008 World Food Prize Laureate.

Mill, John Stuart (18061873): British philosopher and author of (18061873): British philosopher and author of On Liberty On Liberty, a hugely influential work on the limits of power and the importance of self-government.

Montessori, Maria (18701952): Italian educator and philosopher best known for her unique Montessori method of education, which gives children more freedom and self-direction than conventional education. (18701952): Italian educator and philosopher best known for her unique Montessori method of education, which gives children more freedom and self-direction than conventional education.

Montesquieu (Charles-Louis de Secondat) (16891755): French political philosopher known for his articulation of the separation of powers and the cla.s.sifications of governments. (16891755): French political philosopher known for his articulation of the separation of powers and the cla.s.sifications of governments.

Moulton, John Fletcher (18441921): English mathematician and weapons adviser for the British war effort during the First World War. (18441921): English mathematician and weapons adviser for the British war effort during the First World War.

Muhlenberg, Peter (17461807): Revolutionary soldier in the Continental Army; he became both a representative and a senator for Pennsylvania. (17461807): Revolutionary soldier in the Continental Army; he became both a representative and a senator for Pennsylvania.

Mussolini, Benito (18831945): Italian political leader credited with the creation of fascism. He implemented a terrorist police state in Italy after a coup in October 1922. Mussolini led Italy into the Second World War by declaring war on both France and Great Britain in 1940. (18831945): Italian political leader credited with the creation of fascism. He implemented a terrorist police state in Italy after a coup in October 1922. Mussolini led Italy into the Second World War by declaring war on both France and Great Britain in 1940.

Ortega y Ga.s.set, Jose (18831955): Spanish liberal philosopher and essayist who advocated perspectivism while the Spanish government transitioned between monarchy, republicanism, and dictators.h.i.+p. (18831955): Spanish liberal philosopher and essayist who advocated perspectivism while the Spanish government transitioned between monarchy, republicanism, and dictators.h.i.+p.

Paine, Thomas (17371809): American revolutionary and author of the influential (17371809): American revolutionary and author of the influential Common Sense Common Sense. His pro-revolutionary propaganda pamphlets were instrumental in spurring the colonists to declare independence from the Crown.

Pascal, Blaise (16231662): French mathematician and inventor of the mechanical calculator. He converted to Catholicism late in life, abandoning his scientific work and pursuing theology. (16231662): French mathematician and inventor of the mechanical calculator. He converted to Catholicism late in life, abandoning his scientific work and pursuing theology.

Paul, Randolph (18901956): Credited with creating the modern tax system, including the Internal Revenue Code, he served as the director of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. (18901956): Credited with creating the modern tax system, including the Internal Revenue Code, he served as the director of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.

Penn, William (16441718): English philosopher and founder of the colony of Pennsylvania. He advocated religious freedom and democracy in colonial America. (16441718): English philosopher and founder of the colony of Pennsylvania. He advocated religious freedom and democracy in colonial America.

Pericles ( (495 429 BCE): Greek statesman and general of Athens during the Peloponnesian War. He is most famous for his written history of the war and his commentary on the war's revelation of human nature.

Petain, Philippe ( (18561951): French general made famous for his outstanding leaders.h.i.+p during the Battle at Verdun (World War I). He was appointed the premier of France during World War II, and his government quickly set up an authoritarian regime.

Peterson, Wilfred (18931954): Senior officer in the Royal Navy. He partic.i.p.ated in the naval battle that sank the German battles.h.i.+p (18931954): Senior officer in the Royal Navy. He partic.i.p.ated in the naval battle that sank the German battles.h.i.+p Bismarck Bismarck.

Pius XII, Pope (18761958): Head of the Roman Catholic Church from 1939 until his death. He was a staunch opponent of communism and contributed to the rebuilding of Europe after World War II. Historians continue to debate whether he responded appropriately to the Holocaust. (18761958): Head of the Roman Catholic Church from 1939 until his death. He was a staunch opponent of communism and contributed to the rebuilding of Europe after World War II. Historians continue to debate whether he responded appropriately to the Holocaust.

Rauschenbusch, Reverend Walter (18611918): Christian theologian and Baptist minister who played a key role in the American Social Gospel movement. (18611918): Christian theologian and Baptist minister who played a key role in the American Social Gospel movement.

Read, Leonard (18981983): founder of the Foundation for Economic Education, the first modern American libertarian think tank. Ayn Rand was an important adviser of his. (18981983): founder of the Foundation for Economic Education, the first modern American libertarian think tank. Ayn Rand was an important adviser of his.

Rogers, Will (18791935): American cowboy, humorist, and actor who often provided political and social commentary. He was one of the best-known celebrities of the 1920s and 1930s, and he was beloved by the American people until his death in an airplane crash. (18791935): American cowboy, humorist, and actor who often provided political and social commentary. He was one of the best-known celebrities of the 1920s and 1930s, and he was beloved by the American people until his death in an airplane crash.

Roosevelt, Franklin (18821945): Thirty-second president of the United States. Along with Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin, led the Allied Powers against Germany and j.a.pan in World War II. He was the only American president ever elected to more than two terms, and his domestic politics revolved around resuscitating the country's ailing economy. (18821945): Thirty-second president of the United States. Along with Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin, led the Allied Powers against Germany and j.a.pan in World War II. He was the only American president ever elected to more than two terms, and his domestic politics revolved around resuscitating the country's ailing economy.

Seneca, Lucius (c. 3 BCE65 CE): Tutor and adviser to the emperor Nero. He was a Roman Stoic philosopher and dramatist from the Silver Age of Latin literature. (c. 3 BCE65 CE): Tutor and adviser to the emperor Nero. He was a Roman Stoic philosopher and dramatist from the Silver Age of Latin literature.

Shaw, George Bernard (18561950): Irish playwright and cofounder of the London School of Economics. He wrote over sixty plays, most of which dealt with social problems. He was very concerned with the exploitation of the working cla.s.s and remained a staunch socialist until his death. (18561950): Irish playwright and cofounder of the London School of Economics. He wrote over sixty plays, most of which dealt with social problems. He was very concerned with the exploitation of the working cla.s.s and remained a staunch socialist until his death.

Slichter, Sumner (18921959): Famous labor economist of the 1940s and 1950s. His was the standard economics textbook in America before 1950, and he informally advised President Harry Truman. (18921959): Famous labor economist of the 1940s and 1950s. His was the standard economics textbook in America before 1950, and he informally advised President Harry Truman.

Smith, Adam (17231790): Key figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, he was the author of the first modern work of economics, (17231790): Key figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, he was the author of the first modern work of economics, The Wealth of Nations The Wealth of Nations. He is widely known for pioneering modern capitalism, as well as for his moral philosophies.

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr (19182008): Russian and Soviet novelist who helped make the world aware of the Soviet Union's forced labor camps through his writings. (19182008): Russian and Soviet novelist who helped make the world aware of the Soviet Union's forced labor camps through his writings.

Sorensen, Theodore (19282010): President John F. Kennedy's special counsel, adviser, and speechwriter. He drafted much of Kennedy's Cold War correspondence and influenced foreign policy. (19282010): President John F. Kennedy's special counsel, adviser, and speechwriter. He drafted much of Kennedy's Cold War correspondence and influenced foreign policy.

Spencer, Herbert (18201903): English philosopher and sociologist of the Victorian era. He wrote (18201903): English philosopher and sociologist of the Victorian era. He wrote Principles of Biology Principles of Biology, wherein he coined the term and concept "survival of the fittest."

Stalin, Joseph (18791953): Dictator of the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death. He fostered a cult of personality around himself and launched a command economy. He was also responsible for the Great Purge, a campaign to exterminate dissidents in the Communist party. (18791953): Dictator of the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death. He fostered a cult of personality around himself and launched a command economy. He was also responsible for the Great Purge, a campaign to exterminate dissidents in the Communist party.

Sun Tzu (544496 BC): Chinese philosopher, military general, and strategist who is believed to have been the author of the famous military strategy book (544496 BC): Chinese philosopher, military general, and strategist who is believed to have been the author of the famous military strategy book The Art of War The Art of War.

Thomas, Norman (18841968): American socialist and pacifist who was a six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America. (18841968): American socialist and pacifist who was a six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America.

Tocqueville, Alexis de (18051859): French political thinker and historian known for his work on social conditions in western society. He wrote (18051859): French political thinker and historian known for his work on social conditions in western society. He wrote Democracy in America Democracy in America.

Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (18891975): British historian who wrote a popular twelve-volume a.n.a.lysis of civilizations. In the early twentieth century, he was a prominent consultant to the English government on international affairs, particularly in the Middle East. (18891975): British historian who wrote a popular twelve-volume a.n.a.lysis of civilizations. In the early twentieth century, he was a prominent consultant to the English government on international affairs, particularly in the Middle East.

Tytler, Alexander Fraser (17471813): British lawyer and writer who wrote cynically of democracies during his time as a professor in Scotland. (17471813): British lawyer and writer who wrote cynically of democracies during his time as a professor in Scotland.

Webster, Daniel (17821852): American statesman during the antebellum period. He was Andrew Jackson's conservative counterpart, and he served in the House and the Senate before becoming secretary of state under three presidents. (17821852): American statesman during the antebellum period. He was Andrew Jackson's conservative counterpart, and he served in the House and the Senate before becoming secretary of state under three presidents.

Williams, Jack (19091998): Thirteenth governor of Arizona. He was a political conservative, mayor of Phoenix, radio announcer, and advertising writer. (19091998): Thirteenth governor of Arizona. He was a political conservative, mayor of Phoenix, radio announcer, and advertising writer.

Willkie, Wendell (18921944): Dark-horse Republican Party nominee in the 1940 presidential election. He lost to Franklin D. Roosevelt and subsequently became the president's amba.s.sador-at-large. (18921944): Dark-horse Republican Party nominee in the 1940 presidential election. He lost to Franklin D. Roosevelt and subsequently became the president's amba.s.sador-at-large.

Wilson, Woodrow (18561924): Twenty-eighth president of the United States. A leader of the Progressive movement, he led the United States in the First World War and later promoted his plan for the League of Nations. He was known for his idealistic internationalism, calling for the United States to fight for democracy abroad. (18561924): Twenty-eighth president of the United States. A leader of the Progressive movement, he led the United States in the First World War and later promoted his plan for the League of Nations. He was known for his idealistic internationalism, calling for the United States to fight for democracy abroad.

Winthrop, John (15881649): Wealthy Puritan who obtained a royal charter from King Charles I to lead a group of fellow Englishmen and Englishwomen to the New World. He was elected governor of the Ma.s.sachusetts Bay Colony in 1629. (15881649): Wealthy Puritan who obtained a royal charter from King Charles I to lead a group of fellow Englishmen and Englishwomen to the New World. He was elected governor of the Ma.s.sachusetts Bay Colony in 1629.

Wolfe, Thomas (19001938): Master of autobiographical fiction. He wrote four lengthy novels and many short stories, most of which reflect on American mores and culture of the time. He is said to have influenced authors Jack Kerouac, Ray Bradbury, and Philip Roth. (19001938): Master of autobiographical fiction. He wrote four lengthy novels and many short stories, most of which reflect on American mores and culture of the time. He is said to have influenced authors Jack Kerouac, Ray Bradbury, and Philip Roth.