A. Lincoln_ A Biography Part 29

"Mr. Lincoln, that was a sacred effort."

SOON AFTER LINCOLN'S INAUGURATION, General Grant invited the president to come down to his headquarters at City Point, Virginia. "I think the rest will do you good." Lincoln arrived on the River Queen River Queen on March 24, 1865. Always enjoying visiting with the troops, Lincoln spent time talking with wounded soldiers in the hospital tents, making a special point of speaking with wounded Confederates. on March 24, 1865. Always enjoying visiting with the troops, Lincoln spent time talking with wounded soldiers in the hospital tents, making a special point of speaking with wounded Confederates.

Although Lincoln would make no public predictions about the end of the war, privately he knew that Robert E. Lee, for all his deserved renown, could not hold out much longer. Grant and Meade and the Army of the Potomac were slowly closing off both supply routes and escape routes for Lee's Army of Northern Virginia.

With his army down to fifty thousand men, of whom thirty-five thousand were fit to fight, with desertions sapping his strength daily, Lee decided to take one more desperate gamble. He would try to break through the weakest point of the Union line. On the day after Lincoln's arrival at City Point, Lee dispatched General John B. Gordon, who had succeeded Stonewall Jackson, to attempt a breakout against Fort Sted-man. Gordon punched open a hole in the Union line, but it was quickly closed as Lincoln watched from a distance. In desperate fighting, the Confederates lost 5,000 men compared to Union losses of 1,500.

On March 28, 1865, Grant arranged a meeting with the president, Admiral David Porter, and General Sherman, who had come up by boat from North Carolina. During the conference, Sherman asked Lincoln: "What is to be done with the rebel armies when defeated?" The president offered a lengthy reply stressing his desire for reconciliation. Lincoln told Sherman he wanted to "get the men comprising the Confederate armies back to their homes, at work on their farms and in their shops." Sherman wanted to know if that generosity would include Jefferson Davis and the top Confederate leaders. Lincoln responded with a story about a teetotaler who when asked whether he wanted his lemonade spiked with whiskey responded that it would be all right if he didn't know about it. Grant, Sherman, and Porter understood the president to say that if Davis and the chief Confederate leaders were to escape it would be all right with him.

As the meeting was about to conclude, Lincoln turned to Sherman. "Do you know why I took a s.h.i.+ne to you and Grant?"

"I don't know, Mr. Lincoln. You have been extremely kind to me, far more than I deserve."

"Well," Lincoln replied, "you never found fault with me."

Sherman left immediately to return to his troops and never saw Lincoln again. He wrote later, "Of all the men I have met, he seemed to possess more of the elements of greatness, combined with goodness, than any other."

Grant knew that he now had Lee cornered, having cut off nearly all his escape routes to the south. On April 2, 1865, the Army of the Potomac attacked all along the lines at Petersburg. After a siege of 293 days, the Confederates finally abandoned both Petersburg and Richmond on the same evening.

When Lincoln learned that Confederate forces had left Richmond, he decided he wanted to visit the capital of the Confederacy. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, concerned that snipers might still be in Richmond, telegraphed Lincoln urging him not to expose himself to great risk. Lincoln replied, "I will take care of myself."

Why did he go? Southerners said, then and later, that he came with a ghoulish desire to gloat over a city still burning. The real reason he went was revealed in his actions and words there.

On the morning of April 4, 1865, Lincoln started up the James River for Richmond on the River Queen. River Queen. Lincoln took Tad with him, who was celebrating his twelfth birthday that day. Admiral Porter had hoped to arrive with a grand display of naval power, but the Confederates had blocked and mined the river. By the time his original flotilla of s.h.i.+ps approached Richmond, Lincoln and his entourage-Porter, two officers, and a guard of twelve sailors in blue jackets and round blue hats-were reduced to travel in what amounted to a large rowboat. As the boat docked at Richmond's Rocket's Landing, the president could see smoke rising from the burning city. General G.o.dfrey Weitzel, the new Union commander of the Army of the James, had been alerted to Lincoln's plans, but since the president was not expected until the afternoon, no honor guard was present to meet him. Lincoln took Tad with him, who was celebrating his twelfth birthday that day. Admiral Porter had hoped to arrive with a grand display of naval power, but the Confederates had blocked and mined the river. By the time his original flotilla of s.h.i.+ps approached Richmond, Lincoln and his entourage-Porter, two officers, and a guard of twelve sailors in blue jackets and round blue hats-were reduced to travel in what amounted to a large rowboat. As the boat docked at Richmond's Rocket's Landing, the president could see smoke rising from the burning city. General G.o.dfrey Weitzel, the new Union commander of the Army of the James, had been alerted to Lincoln's plans, but since the president was not expected until the afternoon, no honor guard was present to meet him.

Although Lincoln entered Richmond unannounced, the tall man with the silk hat did not go far before the city's black residents recognized him. A woman greeted him. "I know that I am free, for I have seen Father Abraham." Lincoln said to a black man who dropped to his knees, "Don't kneel to me. That is not right. You must kneel to G.o.d only, and thank Him for the liberty you will enjoy hereafter." With each block, more black residents joined the parade, many coming up to the president to shake his hand or simply touch him. White residents observed the pageant from the steps of their homes or stayed behind locked doors.

Lincoln's destination was General Weitzel's headquarters at Jefferson Davis's house, three blocks from Richmond's Capitol Square. As the president arrived, the crowd broke into cheers. Lincoln turned and bowed in response. He entered the house and sat at the departed Davis's desk. While soldiers were taking everything that was not bolted down in the White House of the Confederacy, Lincoln took only a gla.s.s of water.

In the afternoon, Lincoln toured the burned district of the city and the prisons, the conditions of which had long been a source of anger in the North. Now the prisons were filled with Confederates, but the evidence of years of inhumane conditions prompted a Union officer to exclaim, "Jefferson Davis should be hanged." Lincoln replied quietly, "Judge not, that ye be not judged."

Lincoln left Richmond late in the afternoon. As he was departing, General Weitzel asked for his counsel in dealing with the proud but frightened people of the Confederate capital as well as the prisoners. Lincoln replied, "If I were in your place, I'd let 'em up easy, let 'em up easy."

WHEN RICHMOND FELL, Lee led his exhausted troops toward the last rail link to North Carolina and a hoped-for meeting with General Joseph Johnston's troops. General Philip Sheridan's cavalry raced to cut off Lee's supplies at Amelia Court House. On the night of April 7, 1865, Grant pa.s.sed on to Lincoln a note from Sheridan: "If the thing is pressed I think Lee will surrender." Lincoln replied: "Let the thing be pressed."

Early on Palm Sunday, April 9, 1865, Lee asked for an interview with Grant for the purposes of surrender. An aide of Grant was sent to find a suitable meeting place and secured a first-floor parlor in Wilmer McLean's house in the little town of Appomattox Court House, Virginia. McLean had owned a farm at Mana.s.sas in 1861, but when a sh.e.l.l came through his window in the first battle of Bull Run he decided to move to this small town in isolated southern Virginia to escape the war.

Lee arrived first, in full dress uniform, with saber at his side. Grant arrived at 1:30 in a mud-spattered private's uniform. Grant wished to preserve Lee's dignity even as he asked for the surrender of his army. If Lincoln had been firm that he wanted Grant to accept only unconditional surrender, now Grant, with Lincoln's full backing, offered a generous peace. Each Confederate soldier would be allowed to return to his home and a normal life, and he could take his horse and mule with him. Lee was grateful. "This will have the best possible effect upon the men. It will be very gratifying and will do much toward conciliating our people."

LINCOLN DECIDED TO RETURN from Virginia to Was.h.i.+ngton on the morning of April 9, 1865, when he was informed that William Seward had been seriously injured in a carriage accident. Upon his return on the from Virginia to Was.h.i.+ngton on the morning of April 9, 1865, when he was informed that William Seward had been seriously injured in a carriage accident. Upon his return on the River Queen, River Queen, he was informed by Secretary of War Stanton that Lee had surrendered to Grant earlier in the day. Lincoln made his way through surging crowds to visit Seward, who had suffered a fractured jaw, a broken arm, and facial lacerations. he was informed by Secretary of War Stanton that Lee had surrendered to Grant earlier in the day. Lincoln made his way through surging crowds to visit Seward, who had suffered a fractured jaw, a broken arm, and facial lacerations.

On the morning of April 10, 1865, all of Was.h.i.+ngton learned the war was over when Secretary of War Stanton ordered the firing of five hundred cannons, which broke windows on Lafayette Square. In the afternoon, three thousand people marched to the White House to serenade the president. They called for a speech. He thanked them for coming, but unprepared to speak spontaneously, asked them to return the following evening. He asked the military band to play "Dixie," a song he said that now belonged to the whole country.

April 11, 1865, became an official day of celebration. Government offices closed. Across the Potomac in Arlington, thousands of African-Americans gathered on the lawn of Robert E. Lee's former home to sing "The Year of Jubilee." In the evening, public buildings and private homes were illuminated.

An even larger crowd walked to the White House to hear the president speak. Noah Brooks stood behind the president with a candle to help illuminate the pages from Lincoln's prepared remarks. Tad, crouching below the window, delighted in picking up the pages as they fell from his father's hands. Lincoln focused his remarks not on the past but on the future. Avoiding the contentious debate about whether the seceded states had been in or out of the Union the past four years, Lincoln declared, "Let us all join in doing the acts necessary to restoring the proper relations between these states and the Union." He devoted the bulk of his speech to speaking about Louisiana, admitting that he had been severely criticized for his Reconstruction plan for the state. Secretary of War Stanton, Chief Justice Chase, and Republican Senate radicals complained that without granting Southern blacks suffrage, they would remain under the control of their former masters. Lincoln, who was not yet certain of his ideas on suffrage, said he preferred that "very intelligent blacks," and the nearly two hundred thousand who had served in the military, be granted the right to vote.

Lincoln called for everyone to exercise flexibility in navigating the whole new territory of Reconstruction. He tipped his hat to Congress, saying they had a rightful role to play, but declared that "no exclusive, and inflexible plan can safely be prescribed as to details and collaterals" at this time. Lincoln concluded, "In the present 'situation,' 'situation,' as the phrase goes, it may be my duty to make some new announcement to the people of the South. I am considering, and shall not fail to act, when satisfied that action will be proper." as the phrase goes, it may be my duty to make some new announcement to the people of the South. I am considering, and shall not fail to act, when satisfied that action will be proper."

The response to Lincoln's address was polite but muted. The crowd came expecting a rousing speech praising the Union and the courageous efforts of soldiers, not a rather technical defense of Lincoln's Reconstruction policies. Some people, disappointed, left before Lincoln finished his remarks. The president sensed the cool response of the crowd.

The response of one man, however, was far from muted. When the Civil War had first erupted, John Wilkes Booth continued to work in the North, making no effort to cover up his Southern sympathies, including his support for slavery. Booth, taking pride in himself as a cultured actor, held Lincoln in disdain as a man of low culture and coa.r.s.e jokes.

Booth had become despondent when Lincoln was reelected in November and the fortunes of the South shrank in the winter and early spring of 1865. Now that the war was over, he resolved that stronger measures were needed. He was in touch with the Southern secret service as he sought to do something "heroic" for the South. When Lincoln spoke about the possibility of voting rights for some African-Americans, Booth turned to a friend and snapped, "That means n.i.g.g.e.r citizens.h.i.+p. Now, by G.o.d, I'll put him through. That is the last speech he will ever make."

ON GOOD FRIDAY MORNING, April 14, 1865, Lincoln arose feeling well. He had enjoyed a good night's sleep after many nights of restlessness. He had had once again a recurrent dream. He found himself on a s.h.i.+p traveling to a distant, unknown sh.o.r.e. He told Mary of the dream, but said he was not concerned because he had experienced a similar dream several times before, always before a significant Union victory, at Antietam, Gettysburg, and Vicksburg. He hoped that the dream meant favorable news this day. Perhaps Johnston, in North Carolina, had surrendered to Sherman.

He enjoyed breakfast with Mary and Tad; Robert arrived later. He had invited Mary for a carriage ride in the afternoon. In the evening he was looking forward to going to Ford's Theatre to see Our American Cousin, Our American Cousin, an English comedy starring the celebrated English actress Laura Keene. Lincoln invited Ulysses and Julia Grant to join them. an English comedy starring the celebrated English actress Laura Keene. Lincoln invited Ulysses and Julia Grant to join them.

At 11 a.m. Grant, who had arrived in the city the night before, joined Lincoln for a cabinet meeting. Grant shared news of the last drive in Virginia and the surrender of Lee at Appomattox Court House. Lincoln asked about news from Sherman in North Carolina. He told everyone that the news would surely be that Johnston had surrendered because he had had a dream the night before that had always preceded military victories. When the discussion turned to how to deal with the defeated South, Lincoln spoke sympathetically of Lee. The president then spoke with discouragement that men in his own party "possess feelings of hate and vindictiveness in which I do not sympathize and cannot partic.i.p.ate."

Grant lingered after the cabinet meeting to tell Lincoln that they would not be accompanying him that evening to Ford's Theatre. The Grants were going to take the evening train to Philadelphia as they were anxious to see their sons in Long Branch, New Jersey.

Lincoln ate an apple for lunch and, back at his office, signed another pardon, this time for a man accused as a Confederate spy. "Well, I think the boy can do us more good above ground than under ground." After dealing patiently with a number of callers, Lincoln went to get Mary for their four o'clock carriage ride.

Lincoln did his best to try to calm Mary. At City Point she had embarra.s.sed him by claiming loudly that he was flirting with an officer's wife. She had even accosted Julia Grant and upbraided her for wanting to succeed her in the White House. Now, on this Good Friday afternoon, he told Mary, "We must both both be more cheerful in the future." He acknowledged that "between the war & the loss of our darling Willie-we have both been very miserable." But the conversation turned happier when they spoke of the future. Lincoln said he wanted to visit Europe, perhaps even Jerusalem. One day he wanted to travel out west-to California. be more cheerful in the future." He acknowledged that "between the war & the loss of our darling Willie-we have both been very miserable." But the conversation turned happier when they spoke of the future. Lincoln said he wanted to visit Europe, perhaps even Jerusalem. One day he wanted to travel out west-to California.

Returning to the White House, Lincoln endured more callers. Mary, who complained of a headache, said she would rather stay home. Lincoln knew their plan had been announced in the newspapers and said they must attend, and so they dressed for the evening. She wore a lovely gray silk dress and he a black suit, overcoat, white kid gloves, and top hat. As they were about to go, Congressman Isaac Arnold came by to see Lincoln. The president told him, "I am going to the theatre. Come by and see me in the morning."

Finally, after a quick walk to the War Department, Abraham and Mary prepared to leave. William H. Crook, a White House guard, wanted to accompany the president, but Lincoln told Crook he knew he had had a long day and he should take the night off. On their way to the theater, they stopped at Senator Ira Harris's house to pick up Major Henry R. Rathbone and Harris's daughter Clara, whom Lincoln invited when the Grants declined. On a foggy Was.h.i.+ngton evening, the Lincolns finally arrived at Ford's at eight-thirty, late for the play.

When the Lincolns entered their flag-draped box, the play stopped and the audience cheered. Major Rathbone and Miss Harris took the front seats while Abraham and Mary sat in the rear. John F. Parker, another White House guard, who was to stand in front of the door to the Lincolns' box, instead decided to find a seat in order to see the play.

As the farcical comedy rollicked forward, Mary had to point out to her exhausted husband what was happening onstage. Lincoln found it difficult to get his mind off the myriad of problems with Reconstruction. Mary slipped her hand into his.

During the third act, John Wilkes Booth entered the unguarded box. He aimed a small derringer pistol at the back of Lincoln's head, and, from a distance of six inches, fired one shot. Lincoln slumped ahead in his chair. Mary screamed in terror. Rathbone rose to confront the intruder, but Booth, dagger in hand, slashed the young major before leaping from the box to the stage. He yelled in defiance, "Sic semper tyrannis!" "Sic semper tyrannis!" ("Thus ever to tyrants.") ("Thus ever to tyrants.") The audience was stunned. Bedlam erupted and people rushed for the exits. Lincoln's limp body was carried across the street to the modest home of William Peterson, a tailor. The doctor who examined the president knew that he could not live. The bullet had entered his head on the left side and lodged near his right eye.

As Mary Lincoln sobbed inconsolably, Secretary of War Stanton took charge. Welles arrived and observed, "The giant sufferer lay extended diagonally across the bed, which was not long enough for him." House Speaker Colfax, Senator Sumner, and prominent members of the cabinet gathered in the small back room of the Peterson home. Lincoln's pastor, Phineas Gurley, arrived. Rumors circulated that a.s.sa.s.sins had also attacked Vice President Johnson and General Grant. A further report said Secretary of State Seward was a.s.saulted but survived.

Throughout the long night, Was.h.i.+ngton officials came and went. Robert Lincoln arrived and broke down when he saw his father. Mary tried to speak to her husband, kissed his face, and told him to speak to their departed children. She recalled his dream he told her of the phantom s.h.i.+p traveling to the distant sh.o.r.e.

Finally, Lincoln's pulse weakened, and he died at 7:22 a.m. on Sat.u.r.day, April 15, 1865. Stanton asked Pastor Gurley to offer a prayer. Then the secretary of war, who had come to such a deep appreciation of Lincoln, said simply, "Now, he belongs to the ages."

GRIEF FOR THE DEAD PRESIDENT spread quickly across the country. Many well-known people spoke in impromptu meetings in cities large and small. In Rochester, New York, Mayor Daniel David Tompkins hastily called a meeting at the city hall. He invited three of the leading citizens of Rochester to speak of their appreciation for Abraham Lincoln. Frederick Dougla.s.s took a seat toward the back of the auditorium. After the scheduled speakers delivered their eulogies, attendees called for Dougla.s.s to speak. He walked to the platform to offer his spontaneous eulogy, focusing his remarks on words from Lincoln's second inaugural address. He quoted two sentences from the address. spread quickly across the country. Many well-known people spoke in impromptu meetings in cities large and small. In Rochester, New York, Mayor Daniel David Tompkins hastily called a meeting at the city hall. He invited three of the leading citizens of Rochester to speak of their appreciation for Abraham Lincoln. Frederick Dougla.s.s took a seat toward the back of the auditorium. After the scheduled speakers delivered their eulogies, attendees called for Dougla.s.s to speak. He walked to the platform to offer his spontaneous eulogy, focusing his remarks on words from Lincoln's second inaugural address. He quoted two sentences from the address.

Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pa.s.s away. Yet if G.o.d wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another, drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still must it be said, that the judgments of the Lord are righteous altogether.

Dougla.s.s spoke the words from memory, declaring that "those memorable words-words which will live immortal in history," will "be read with increasing admiration from age to age."

The day after Lincoln's death, Easter Sunday, hundreds of ministers and preachers offered a new definition of Abraham Lincoln. In sermons across the North they interpreted the president's death as a sacrifice for the nation's sins. They declared him the Civil War's final casualty.

In the subsequent days and weeks, in general stores and schools and churches across the country, others attempted to define the meaning of Lincoln's life. Their first instinct was to look backward, from the vantage point of the end of the Civil War, to see with new appreciation what Lincoln had accomplished in holding the Union together and declaring freedom for the slaves. Some pondered what might have been in Lincoln's second term as the nation suddenly faced the uncertainty of reconciliation and reconstruction. They wondered what role Lincoln might have played in healing the country after so many years of violence. They wondered what new designation he might have earned.

In the years that have followed, each generation of Americans, indeed citizens around the world, has attempted to define and redefine Lincoln from their own historical vantage point, asking new questions relevant to their day. One reason we have never settled on one definition of Lincoln, and, indeed, never will, is that Lincoln never stopped asking questions of himself. Painfully aware of the shortcomings of his early education, Lincoln-whether as schoolboy, Illinois legislator, prairie lawyer, or as president-always continued his self-study, growing in wisdom and self-knowledge with each pa.s.sing year. He read, discussed, and pondered the great ideas not only of his time, but of those of the generations before him. He also thought into the future, antic.i.p.ating the moral questions of subsequent generations. And Lincoln underwent a religious odyssey that deepened as he aged, inquiring about everlasting truths until his last day.

In the days after Lincoln's death, preparations began for a vast public mourning. Arrangements were made for the long train ride home to the prairies of Illinois. Lincoln's casket would retrace the exact route where cheering crowds had greeted the president-elect on his way to Was.h.i.+ngton four years before. On Tuesday, April 18, it seemed that all of Was.h.i.+ngton stood in line outside the White House to pay their respects to the dead president. After waiting hours they entered the East Room to pa.s.s the president's open casket, finding him dressed in the black suit he had worn at his Second Inaugural. Three days after the a.s.sa.s.sination, some of the mourners may have offered the most accurate characterization of the man behind the signature "A. Lincoln." As was the custom of the time, many people wore silk mourning badges. One badge, seen everywhere in Was.h.i.+ngton during those sad days, said what was in people's hearts: "With malice toward none; with charity for all."

Acknowledgments-N WRITING A BIOGRAPHY of Abraham Lincoln, I have been conscious at every moment of being supported by a community of scholars, friends, and inst.i.tutions. I am privileged to do research and writing as a Fellow at the incomparable Huntington Library in San Marino, California. I wish to thank Steven Koblik, president; Robert C. Ritchie, W. M. Keck director of research; and David S. Zeidberg, Avery director of the library. Special thanks go to the Readers Services Department, especially Christopher J. S. Adde, Jill Cogan, and Barbara Quinn.The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield, Illinois, is a treasure trove of ma.n.u.scripts and people. From the beginning of my journey with Mr. Lincoln, Illinois state historian Tom Schwartz, always willing to answer any query, has generously shared his vast knowledge of Lincoln. Daniel W. Stowell, director and editor of the Lincoln Papers, has offered his friends.h.i.+p and counsel, as well as early admission to the ma.n.u.script versions of the Lincoln Legal Papers published by the University of Virginia Press in 2008. Stowell and his excellent team of editors also provided access to their ma.s.sive project of collecting and annotating the Abraham Lincoln Papers, which, unlike the Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln published in the 1950s, will include all of the incoming correspondence to Lincoln. I also thank James M. Cornelius, curator of the Henry h.o.e.rner Lincoln Collection, and Cheryl Schnirring, director of the Ma.n.u.scripts Division. Tim Town-send, National Park Service historian for the Abraham Lincoln home in Springfield, guided me through the home and answered innumerable questions in succeeding years. published in the 1950s, will include all of the incoming correspondence to Lincoln. I also thank James M. Cornelius, curator of the Henry h.o.e.rner Lincoln Collection, and Cheryl Schnirring, director of the Ma.n.u.scripts Division. Tim Town-send, National Park Service historian for the Abraham Lincoln home in Springfield, guided me through the home and answered innumerable questions in succeeding years.At the Library of Congress, John Sellers, historical specialist for the Civil War and Reconstruction, has been a resource and sounding board for all things Lincoln. Clark Evans, director, Rare Books Division, and Mary Ison, head of the Photography and Prints Division, have, again, rendered valuable a.s.sistance.I wish to thank the staffs of the John Hay Collection at Brown University, the Chicago History Museum, and the Lincoln Museum in Fort Wayne, Indiana, for their help during research visits.I am grateful to President George W. Bush for his invitation to Cynthia and me to meet with him and to explore firsthand Lincoln's White House. Mr. Peter Wehner, deputy a.s.sistant to the president and director of the Office of Strategic Initiatives, coordinated our visit. William G. Allman, White House curator, provided us an extensive tour of the White House, including the upstairs living quarters, and spoke with us about how this great house functioned in Lincoln's time. It is one thing to read about the White House; it is another to meander through its rooms and imagine where Abraham, Mary, Tad, Willie, and secretaries John Nicolay and John Hay lived and worked. We appreciated seeing the marvelous George P. A. Healey portrait of Lincoln in the White House state dining room.Jim McPherson generously shared with me Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief while Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief while still in ma.n.u.script form. Catherine Clinton kindly allowed me to read an early draft of her new book, still in ma.n.u.script form. Catherine Clinton kindly allowed me to read an early draft of her new book, Mrs. Lincoln: A Life. Mrs. Lincoln: A Life.I am indebted to friends who read parts or all of the ma.n.u.script. Tom Schwartz read an early version of the Illinois portion of the ma.n.u.script. Huntington colleagues Jack Rogers and Paul Zall provided me their seasoned insights. Douglas Wilson and Daniel Howe read parts of the ma.n.u.script and offered both critical questions and critical insights. Gary Gallagher, Jim McPherson, and Richard Wightman Fox deserve full thanks for reading the full ma.n.u.script.Karen Needles, director of the Lincolnarchives Digital Project (www.lincolnarchives.us), tirelessly a.s.sisted me in searching the Library of Congress, National Archives, and other repositories for texts, photographs, ill.u.s.trations, and cartoons. Annie Russell, a former Ph.D. student, both offered her own critical reading of the ma.n.u.script and helped organize the notes and the bibliography. Nancy Macky, a dear friend and Huntington reader, offered her enthusiastic help at a timely moment toward the end of the project.So many friends, old and new, have offered encouragement, hospitality, and insight along this journey. I can only mention a few: Herb and Roberta Ludwig, Gordon and Sandy Hess, Don and Deanda Roberts, John and Lois Harrison, and Dale Soden.Mary Evans, my literary agent, has once again been a thoughtful editor, counselor, and cheerleader for this, our third book together.The greatest privilege and joy has been working with my editor, David Ebershoff, at Random House. A brilliant novelist, David worked with me chapter by chapter as he brought his perceptive counsel and penetrating questions, always ending every interchange with encouragement. I thank Lindsey Schwoeri and many others at Random House for their support. I am grateful to Mich.e.l.le Daniel for her excellent skills in copy editing.Finally, and foremost, my best reader has been my wife, Cynthia, who read every page, in many versions, with wisdom and questions born of her own love of reading. Her good humor in relation to my insatiable curiosity about Mr. Lincoln became more than matched by her affirmation of every facet of the long-distance journey of writing this biography. I dedicate this book to Cynthia.

Notes.

ABBREVIATIONS AND SHORT t.i.tLES EMPLOYED IN NOTES.

AL.

Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln ALPLC.

Available at Available at Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress, Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress, Ma.n.u.script Division (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: American Memory Project, 2000), http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/ alhome.html, accessed 2002. Ma.n.u.script Division (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: American Memory Project, 2000), http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/ alhome.html, accessed 2002.

ALPLM.

Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Springfield, Illinois Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Springfield, Illinois ALQ.

Abraham Lincoln Quarterly Abraham Lincoln Quarterly Baker, Mary Todd Lincoln Mary Todd Lincoln Jean H. Baker, Jean H. Baker, Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1987). (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1987).

Bates, Diary Diary The Diary of Edward Bates, 18591866, The Diary of Edward Bates, 18591866, ed. Howard K. Beale (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1933). ed. Howard K. Beale (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1933).

Beveridge, Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln Albert J. Beveridge, Albert J. Beveridge, Abraham Lincoln 18091858, 2 Abraham Lincoln 18091858, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1928). vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1928).

Browning, Diary Diary The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, Vol. 20, ed. Theodore C. Pease and James G. Randall (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1925). Vol. 20, ed. Theodore C. Pease and James G. Randall (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1925).

Chase, Diaries Diaries Inside Lincoln s Cabinet: The Civil War Diaries of Salmon P. Chase, Inside Lincoln s Cabinet: The Civil War Diaries of Salmon P. Chase, ed. David Donald (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1954). ed. David Donald (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1954).

CW.

The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols., ed. Roy P. Basler (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 195355) and 9 vols., ed. Roy P. Basler (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 195355) and Supplement, 18321865, 2 Supplement, 18321865, 2 vols. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974). vols. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974).

Day by Day Early Schenk Miers, ed. Early Schenk Miers, ed. Lincoln Day by Day, Lincoln Day by Day, 3 vols. (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C: Lincoln Sesquicentennial Commission, 1960). 3 vols. (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C: Lincoln Sesquicentennial Commission, 1960).

Donald, Lincoln Lincoln David Herbert Donald, David Herbert Donald, Lincoln Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995). (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995).

Fehrenbacher, Recollected Words Recollected Words Don E. Fehrenbacher and Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Don E. Fehrenbacher and Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996). (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996).

Frederick Dougla.s.s John W. Blasingame et al., eds., John W. Blasingame et al., eds., The Frederick Dougla.s.s Papers, The Frederick Dougla.s.s Papers, 5 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 19791992). 5 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 19791992).

Hay, Inside Inside Inside Lincoln's White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay, Inside Lincoln's White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay, ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997). ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997).

HEH.

Huntington Library, San Marino, California Huntington Library, San Marino, California HI.

Douglas L. Wilson and Rodney O. Davis, eds., Douglas L. Wilson and Rodney O. Davis, eds., Herndon's Informants: Letters, Interviews, and Statements about Abraham Lincoln Herndon's Informants: Letters, Interviews, and Statements about Abraham Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998). (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).

HL.

William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Weik, William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Weik, Herndon's Lincoln, Herndon's Lincoln, ed. Douglas L. Wilson and Rodney O. Davis (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006). ed. Douglas L. Wilson and Rodney O. Davis (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006).

JISHS.

Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society Johannsen, Douglas Douglas Robert W. Johannsen, Robert W. Johannsen, Stephen A. Douglas Stephen A. Douglas (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973). (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973).

LEGAL.

Daniel W. Stowell, ed., Daniel W. Stowell, ed., The Papers of Abraham Lincoln: Legal Doc.u.ments and Cases, The Papers of Abraham Lincoln: Legal Doc.u.ments and Cases, 4 vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008). 4 vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008).

McClellan, Civil War Papers Civil War Papers Stephen W. Sears, ed. Stephen W. Sears, ed. The Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan The Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1989). (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1989).

MTL.

Justin G. Turner and Linda Levitt Turner, eds., Justin G. Turner and Linda Levitt Turner, eds., Mary Todd Lincoln: Her Life and Letters Mary Todd Lincoln: Her Life and Letters (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972). (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972).

Nicolay and Hay Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln, Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln, 10 vols., ed. John G. Nicolay and John Hay (New York: Francis D. Tandy Company, 1905). 10 vols., ed. John G. Nicolay and John Hay (New York: Francis D. Tandy Company, 1905).

OR.

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 128 vols. (Was.h.i.+ngton D.C.: Government Printing Office, 18801901). 128 vols. (Was.h.i.+ngton D.C.: Government Printing Office, 18801901).

PUSG.

John Y Simon et al., eds., John Y Simon et al., eds., Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, 28 vols. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967). 28 vols. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967).

Strong, Diary Diary The Diary of George Templeton Strong, The Diary of George Templeton Strong, vol. 2, vol. 2, 185059, 185059, and vol. 3, and vol. 3, 186065, 186065, ed. Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1952). ed. Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1952).

Taft, Diary Diary Was.h.i.+ngton During the Civil War: The Diary of Horatio Nelson Taft, Was.h.i.+ngton During the Civil War: The Diary of Horatio Nelson Taft, vol. 1, vol. 1, 18611865 18611865 (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Library of Congress, Ma.n.u.script Division). (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Library of Congress, Ma.n.u.script Division).

Welles, Diary Diary Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson, Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson, 3 vols., ed. Howard K. Beale and Alan W. Brownsword (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1960). 3 vols., ed. Howard K. Beale and Alan W. Brownsword (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1960).

The original spelling and punctuation are used in quotations without adding the intrustive "[sic]. "

CHAPTER 1. 1. A. Lincoln and the Promise of America A. Lincoln and the Promise of America "so awful ugly" Walt Whitman to Nathaniel Bloom and John F. S. Gray, March 1920, 1863, in Walt Whitman to Nathaniel Bloom and John F. S. Gray, March 1920, 1863, in Walt Whitman: The Correspondence, Walt Whitman: The Correspondence, vol. 1, vol. 1, 18421867, 18421867, ed. Edwin Haviland Miller (New York: New York University Press, 1961), 81. ed. Edwin Haviland Miller (New York: New York University Press, 1961), 81.

"The first task" G. Vann Woodward, "The Great Prop," G. Vann Woodward, "The Great Prop," Time Time LXIII, no. 13 (March 29, 1954), 52. LXIII, no. 13 (March 29, 1954), 52.