An English Grammar Part 3

[Sidenote: _Nouns change by use._]

13. By being used so as to vary their usual meaning, nouns of one cla.s.s may be made to approach another cla.s.s, or to go over to it entirely. Since words alter their meaning so rapidly by a widening or narrowing of their application, we shall find numerous examples of this s.h.i.+fting from cla.s.s to cla.s.s; but most of them are in the following groups. For further discussion see the remarks on articles (p. 119).

[Sidenote: _Proper names transferred to common use._]

14. Proper nouns are used as common in either of two ways:--

(1) _The origin of a thing is used for the thing itself_: that is, the name of the inventor may be applied to the thing invented, as a _davy_, meaning the miner's lamp invented by Sir Humphry Davy; the _guillotine_, from the name of Dr. Guillotin, who was its inventor. Or the name of the country or city from which an article is derived is used for the article: as _china_, from China; _arras_, from a town in France; _port_ (wine), from Oporto, in Portugal; _levant_ and _morocco_ (leather).

Some of this cla.s.s have become worn by use so that at present we can scarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word; for example, the word _port_, above. Others of similar character are _calico_, from Calicut; _damask_, from Damascus; _currants_, from Corinth; etc.

(2) _The name of a person or place noted for certain qualities is transferred to any person or place possessing those qualities_; thus,--

Hercules and Samson were noted for their strength, and we call a very strong man _a Hercules_ or _a Samson_. Sodom was famous for wickedness, and a similar place is called _a Sodom_ of sin.

_A Daniel_ come to judgment!--SHAKESPEARE.

If it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power, _a Locke_, _a Lavoisier_, _a Hutton_, _a Bentham_, _a Fourier_, it imposes its cla.s.sification on other men, and lo! a new system.--EMERSON.

[Sidenote: _Names for things in bulk altered for separate portions._]

15. Material nouns may be used as cla.s.s names. Instead of considering the whole body of material of which certain uses are made, one can speak of particular uses or phases of the substance; as--

(1) _Of individual objects_ made from metals or other substances capable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a number of objects made of iron. The material _iron_ embraces the metal contained in them all; but we may say, "The cook made the _irons_ hot,"

referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put in _irons_" meaning chains of iron. So also we may speak of _a gla.s.s_ to drink from or to look into; _a steel_ to whet a knife on; _a rubber_ for erasing marks; and so on.

(2) _Of cla.s.ses_ or _kinds_ of the same substance. These are the same in material, but differ in strength, purity, etc. Hence it shortens speech to make the nouns plural, and say _teas_, _tobaccos_, _paints_, _oils_, _candies_, _clays_, _coals_.

(3) _By poetical use_, of certain words necessarily singular in idea, which are made plural, or used as cla.s.s nouns, as in the following:--

The lone and level _sands_ stretch far away.--Sh.e.l.lEY.

From all around-- Earth and her _waters_, and the depths of air-- Comes a still voice.--BRYANT.

Their airy ears _The winds_ have stationed on the mountain peaks.

--PERCIVAL.

(4) _Of detached portions_ of matter used as cla.s.s names; as _stones_, _slates_, _papers_, _tins_, _clouds_, _mists_, etc.

[Sidenote: _Personification of abstract ideas._]

16. Abstract nouns are frequently used as proper names by being personified; that is, the ideas are spoken of as residing in living beings. This is a poetic usage, though not confined to verse.

Next _Anger_ rushed; his eyes, on fire, In lightnings owned his secret stings.--COLLINS.

_Freedom's_ fame finds wings on every wind.--BYRON.

_Death_, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, smiled.--HAYNE.

_Traffic_ has lain down to rest; and only _Vice_ and _Misery_, to prowl or to moan like night birds, are abroad.--CARLYLE.

[Sidenote: _A halfway cla.s.s of words. Cla.s.s nouns in use, abstract in meaning._]

17. Abstract nouns are made half abstract by being spoken of in the plural.

They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common cla.s.s nouns. For example, examine this:--

The _arts_ differ from the _sciences_ in this, that their power is founded not merely on _facts_ which can be communicated, but on _dispositions_ which require to be created.--RUSKIN.

When it is said that _art_ differs from _science_, that the power of art is founded on _fact_, that _disposition_ is the thing to be created, the words italicized are pure abstract nouns; but in case _an art_ or _a science_, or _the arts_ and _sciences_, be spoken of, the abstract idea is partly lost. The words preceded by the article _a_, or made plural, are still names of abstract ideas, not material things; but they widen the application to separate kinds of _art_ or different branches of _science_. They are neither cla.s.s nouns nor pure abstract nouns: they are more properly called _half abstract_.

Test this in the following sentences:--

Let us, if we must have great _actions_, make our own so.--EMERSON.

And still, as each repeated _pleasure_ tired, Succeeding _sports_ the mirthful band inspired.--GOLDSMITH.

But ah! those _pleasures_, _loves_, and _joys_ Which I too keenly taste, The Solitary can despise.--BURNS.

All these, however, were mere _terrors_ of the night.--IRVING.

[Sidenote: _By ellipses, nouns used to modify._]

18. Nouns used as descriptive terms. Sometimes a noun is attached to another noun to add to its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a _family_ quarrel," "a _New York_ bank," "the _State Bank Tax_ bill,"

"a _morning_ walk."

It is evident that these approach very near to the function of adjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for these reasons: they do not give up their ident.i.ty as nouns; they do not express quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectives are.

They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another word, but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical expressions, meaning a walk _in the morning_, a bank _in New York_, a bill _as to tax on the banks_, etc.

NOTE.--If the descriptive word be a _material_ noun, it may be regarded as changed to an adjective. The term "_gold_ pen" conveys the same idea as "_golden_ pen," which contains a pure adjective.

WORDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS NOUNS.

[Sidenote: _The noun may borrow from any part of speech, or from any expression._]

19. Owing to the scarcity of distinctive forms, and to the consequent flexibility of English speech, words which are usually other parts of speech are often used as nouns; and various word groups may take the place of nouns by being used as nouns.

[Sidenote: _Adjectives, Conjunctions, Adverbs._]

(1) _Other parts of speech_ used as nouns:--

_The great_, _the wealthy_, fear thy blow.--BURNS.