Popular Lectures on Zoonomia Part 7

We generally refer pain to this sense, though it may arise from too violent an impression made upon any of the organs of sense.

Pain is an unpleasant sensation, which the mind refers to some part of the body, and very accurately, if any part of the surface is affected, but less so, if it arises from the affection of an internal part. The sensation of pain may arise from any thing which tends to injure the structure of the body, whether that be internal or external; so that it serves as a monitor to put us on our guard, and to induce us to remove any thing which might be injurious to us. This sensation is produced by any thing which punctures, cuts, tears, distends, compresses, bruises, corrodes, burns, or violently stimulates any part of the body.

A moderate degree of pain in any part excites the action of the whole body; a greater quant.i.ty of blood and nervous energy is determined to the part. A still greater degree of pain brings on inflammation and its consequences, and if it be intense, it will bring on fever, convulsions, delirium, fainting, and even death.

The endurance of pain depends much on the strength of mind possessed by the patient, which, in some instances, is such, that the most violent pains are patiently endured; while in other instances, the slightest can scarcely be born.

It is a curious circ.u.mstance, that a moderate degree of pain, when unaccompanied by fever, often tends to render the understanding more clear, lively, and active. This is confirmed by the experience of people labouring under gout. We have an account of a man who possessed very ordinary powers of understanding, but who exhibited the strongest marks of intelligence and genius in consequence of a severe blow on the head; but that he lost these powers when he recovered from the effects of the blow. Pechlin mentions a young man, who during a complaint originating from worms, possessed an astonis.h.i.+ng memory and lively imagination, both of which he nearly lost by being cured. Haller mentions a man who was able to see in the night, while his eyes were inflamed, but lost this power as he got well. All these facts show, that a certain action or energy is necessary for the performance of any of the functions of the body or mind; and whatever increases this action will, within certain limits, increase those functions.

Feeling is by far the most useful, extensive, and important of the senses, and may be said indeed to be the basis of them all. Vision would be of very little use to us, if it were not aided by the sense of feeling; we shall afterwards see that the same observation may be applied to the other senses. In short, it is to this sense that we are indebted, either immediately or indirectly, for by far the greatest part of our knowledge; for without it we should not be able to procure any idea with respect to the magnitude, distance, shape, heat, hardness or softness, asperity or smoothness of bodies; indeed, if we were deprived of this sense, it is difficult to say whether we should have any idea of the existence of any external bodies; on the contrary, it seems probable that we should not.

LECTURE VI.

TASTE AND SMELL.

From the sense of touch we proceed naturally to that of taste, for there seems to be less difference between these two senses than between any of the others. The sense of taste appears to be seated chiefly in the tongue; for any sweet substance, such as sugar, applied to any other part of the mouth, scarcely excites the least sensation of taste. The same may be observed with respect to any other sapid body, which, unless it is strongly acrid or irritating, produces no effect on any other part than the tongue; but if it is possessed of much acrimony, it then not only affects the palate, and uvula, but even the oesophagus.

The tongue is a muscular substance, placed in the mouth, connected by one end with the adjacent bones and cartilages, while the other end remains free, and easily moveable. The tongue is furnished, particularly on its upper surface, with innumerable nervous papillae, which are much larger than those I described as belonging to the skin. These papillae are of a conical figure, and extremely sensible, forming, without doubt, the true organ of taste; other papillae are found between them, which are partly conical, and partly cylindrical.

Over the papillae of the tongue is spread a single mucous, and semipellucid covering, which adheres firmly to them, and serves the purpose of a cuticle.

Under these papillae are spread the muscles which make up the fleshy part of the tongue: these are extremely numerous, and by their means the tongue possesses the power of performing a great variety of motions with surprising velocity.

The arteries leading to the tongue are extremely numerous; and, when injected with a red fluid, the whole substance appears of a beautiful red.

The tongue is likewise furnished with a large supply of nerves, some of which undoubtedly serve to supply its muscles with nervous energy, while others terminate in the papillae, and form the proper organ of taste: this office seems to be performed by the third branch of the fifth pair of nerves. The papillae, before described, are formed or composed of a number of small nerves, arteries, and veins, firmly united together by cellular substance. These papillae are excited to action by the application of any sapid body; in consequence of which they receive a greater supply of blood, become enlarged, and vastly more sensible.

The structure of the tongue differs in different animals, which likewise possess corresponding differences with respect to taste. In those quadrupeds, in which it is armed with sharp points, the sense of taste is by no means acute. The same is the case with birds and reptiles, whose tongues are very dry and rough.

In a former lecture I took notice of a liquor which is secreted by the glands of the mouth and neighbouring parts, which is called saliva. This liquor acts an important part in the production of taste; it does not differ much from water, excepting by containing a quant.i.ty of mucilage; and nothing is sapid, or capable of affecting the sense of taste, unless it is in some degree soluble in this liquor. Hence earthy substances, which are nearly insoluble, have little or no taste.

It is not, however, sufficient that the substance be possessed of solubility alone; it is necessary likewise that it should be possessed of saline properties, or, at least, of a kind of acrimony, which renders it capable of stimulating the nervous papillae. Hence it is that those substances which are less saline, and less acrid than the saliva, have no taste.

We are capable of distinguis.h.i.+ng various kinds of taste, but some of them with less accuracy than others. Among the different kinds of taste, the following have been considered by Haller, and some other physiologists, as primitive: sweet, sour, bitter, and saline. The others have been thought to be compounded of these; for the sense of taste, as well as sight and hearing, is capable of perceiving compound impressions. To these primitive tastes, Boerhaave added alkaline, spirituous, aromatic, and some others. Of these, in different proportions, all the varieties of tastes, which are extremely numerous, are composed.

Some tastes are pleasant and agreeable, others disagreeable, and scarcely tolerable: there is, however, a great diversity in this respect experienced by different persons; for the same taste, which is highly grateful to some, is extremely unpleasant to others.

But the most pleasant tastes, agreeably to the general laws of sensation, which I described in the last lecture, become gradually less pleasant, and at last disgusting; while, on the contrary, the most disagreeable savours, such as tobacco, opium, and a.s.safoetida, become, by custom, not only tolerable, but highly agreeable.

Nature designed this difference of tastes that we might know and distinguish such foods as are salutary; for we may in general observe, that no kind of food which is healthy, and affords proper nutriment to the body, is disagreeable to the taste; nor are any that are ill tasted proper for our nourishment. Those substances, therefore, which possess strong or disagreeable savours, and which, in general, possess a power of producing great changes on our const.i.tution, are to be ranked as medicines, and only to be used when the const.i.tution is deranged; whereas, in general, those which are pleasant, or mild tasted, are proper for nouris.h.i.+ng the body. We are therefore excited or prompted to receive nourishment by the pleasant smell or taste of the food; but the avidity with which we take it depends much on the state of the stomach, and likewise on a certain inanition or emptiness; for the coa.r.s.est food is grateful to those who are hungry, and whose digestion is good; whereas, to those who have lately eaten, or whose digestive powers are impaired, the most delicate food affords little pleasure. While we are eating, the saliva flows into the mouth more copiously, which excites a more acute sensation of taste. This flow of saliva is likewise frequently excited by the smell or sight of substances agreeable to the taste, which causes an appet.i.te, or desire of eating, similar to that caused by an acc.u.mulation of gastric juice in the stomach.

In brute animals, who have not, like ourselves, the advantage of learning from each other by instruction, the faculty of taste is much more acute, by which they are admonished to abstain from noxious or unhealthy food. This sense, for the same reason, is more acute in savages than in those who live in civiilsed society, which, whatever perfection it gives to the reasoning faculties of man, certainly diminishes the acuteness of all our senses, partly by affording fewer inducements to exercise them, and partly by our manner of living, and by the application of substances to the organs of sense, which tend to vitiate them, and render them depraved.

Taste is modified by age, temperament, habit, and disease; and in this it obeys the general laws of sensation. Children are pleased with the taste of what is sweet, and little stimulating; as we advance in years the taste of more stimulating substances becomes agreeable to us; so that we are admonished by this sense to take into the stomach the kind of nourishment fitted to each period of life. We often, however, counteract this salutary monitor by depraving our sense of taste, by the too free use of vinous or spirituous liquors, which so far deadens the sense of taste, that sweet substances become unpleasant, and nothing but acrid and stimulating things can make an impression on our diminished and vitiated sense of taste.

This sense, as well as others, is liable to be diseased. In order that the sense may be perfect, it is necessary that the membrane which envelopes the nervous papillae of the tongue, and serves as a cuticle, should neither be too thick nor too thin, too dry nor too moist. It is necessary likewise that the qualities of the saliva be natural; for alterations in the nature of this liquor affect very much the sense of taste; if it is bitter, which sometimes happens in bilious complaints, all kinds of food have a bitter taste; if it is sweet, the food has a faint and unpleasant flavour; and if it is acid, the food too tastes sour.

This sense is seldom observed to be too acute, unless from a vitiated state of the cuticle, or membrane, which covers the tongue: if this has been abraded or ulcerated, then the substances applied to the tongue are more sensibly tasted; in many instances, however, they do not produce an increased sensation of taste, but only of pain.

The sense of taste, as well as of touch, may become deficient, from various affections of the brain and nerves; this, however, is not often the case. Some persons have naturally a diminished sense of taste, and this generally accompanies a diminished sense of smell.

This sense is frequently diminished in sensibility from a deficiency of saliva, as well as of the proper moisture of the tongue. Hence, in many diseases, it becomes defective, such as fevers, colds, and the like; both from a want of the proper degree of moisture, and from defect of appet.i.te, which, as was before observed, is necessary to the sense of taste.

The sense of taste is often diminished by a thickened mucous covering of the tongue, which prevents the application of substances to its nervous papillae. This mucous covering arises from a disordered state of the stomach, as well as from several other affections of the body: hence physicians inspect the tongue, that they may be able to judge of the general state of the body; and next to the pulse, it is undoubtedly the best criterion that we have, as it not only points out the nature and degree of several fevers, but likewise, in many instances, the degree of danger to be apprehended.

Having examined the sense of taste, I shall now proceed to consider that of smell; the use of which, like taste, is to enable us to distinguish unwholesome from salutary food; indeed, by this sense, we are taught to avoid what is prejudicial before it reaches the sense of taste, to which it might be very injurious; and thus we are enabled to avoid any thing which has a putrid tendency, which, if received into the stomach, would taint the whole ma.s.s of fluids, and bring on speedy dissolution.

The seat of this sense is a soft pulpy membrane, full of pores, and small vessels, which lines the whole internal cavity of the nose. On this membrane are distributed abundance of soft nerves, which arise chiefly from an expansion of the first pair of nerves coming from the brain. This membrane is likewise plentifully supplied with arteries; so that by means of this nervous and arterial apparatus, this membrane is possessed of very great sensibility; but the nerves of the nose being almost naked, require a defence from the air, which is continually drawn through the nostrils into the lungs, and forced out again by respiration. Nature has therefore supplied this part with a thick insipid mucus, very fluid at its first separation, but gradually thickening, as it combines with oxygen, into a dry crust, approaching often to a membranous matter. This mucus is poured out, or exhaled, by the numerous minute arteries of the nostrils, and serves to keep the nervous apparatus moist, and in a proper state for receiving impressions, as well as to prevent the violent effects which might arise from the stimulus of the air and other bodies. The sense of smell is the most acute about the middle of the septum of the nose, where the nervous membrane which I have described is thicker and softer, than in the cavities more deeply situated, where it is less nervous and vascular. These parts are not however dest.i.tute of the sense.

As taste proceeds from the action of the soluble parts of bodies on the nervous papillae of the tongue, so smell is occasioned by minute and volatile particles flying off from bodies, which become mixed with the air, and drawn up with it into the nostrils, where these small particles stimulate or act upon the nerves before described, and produce the sensation which we call smelling.

The air therefore, being loaded with the subtile and invisible effluvia of bodies, is, by the powers of respiration, drawn through the nose, so as to apply these particles to the almost naked olfactory nerves, which, as was before observed, excites the sense of smelling. When we wish to smell accurately, we shut the mouth, open the nostrils as wide as possible, and making a strong inhalation, draw up a greater number of these volatile particles, than could be drawn up by the common action of respiration, by which means the olfactory nerves are more stimulated, and produce a stronger sensation.

In order that this sense may be enjoyed in perfection, it is necessary that the organ of smell be in a proper state or condition to receive impressions, and that the odorous bodies be likewise in a proper state. With respect to the first, it is necessary that the state of the nerves be sound, and particularly that they be kept in a proper state with respect to moisture.

With regard to the odorous bodies, it is necessary, first, that their minute particles should be disengaged, either by heat, friction, fermentation, or other means capable of decomposing those bodies which are the subjects of smell: secondly, that they may be capable of a.s.suming the vaporous or gaseous state, by combining with caloric, or at any rate, that they should remain for a certain time dissolved or suspended in the air: thirdly, that they should not meet with any substance in their way to the nostrils, which is capable of neutralising them, or altering their properties by its chemical action.

Notwithstanding all the pains which physiologists have taken to detect the nature of odorous bodies, they have met with but little success. They are so extremely minute as to escape the other senses, and we can only say that they must be composed of particles in an extreme state of division and subtilty, because very small quant.i.ties of odorous matter exhale a sufficient quant.i.ty of particles to fill a large s.p.a.ce. A grain of camphor, musk, or amber exhales an odour which penetrates every part of a large apartment, and which remains for a long time.

There is perhaps no substance in nature which is absolutely incapable of being changed from a solid state into that of a fluid or gas, by combining with caloric; though different substances require very different quant.i.ties of heat to produce those effects. Those which are with difficulty converted into fluids or gases, are termed fixed, while those which are easily changed are called volatile; though these are only terms of comparison, for there is probably no body which is absolutely fixed, or incapable of being reduced to vapour by the application of a sufficient degree of heat.

The odorous property is probably as general as that of being convertible into gas. There is perhaps no body so hard, compact, and apparently inodorous, as to be absolutely incapable of exciting smell by proper methods: two pieces of flint rubbed together, produce a very perceptible smell. Metals which appear nearly inodorous, excite a sensation of smell by friction, particularly lead, tin, iron, and copper. Even gold, antimony, bis.m.u.th, and a.r.s.enic, under particular circ.u.mstances, give out peculiar and powerful odours. The odour of a.r.s.enic in its metallic state, and in a state of vapour, resembles that of garlic. The chief means of developing the odorous principles are friction, heat, electricity, fermentation, solution, and mixture.

The effect of mixture is very remarkable in the case of lime and muriate of ammoniac, neither of which, before mixture, has any perceptible odour.

There is perhaps then no body which is perfectly inodorous, or entirely dest.i.tute of smell: for those which have been generally accounted such, may be rendered odorous by some of the methods I have mentioned.

Several naturalists and physiologists, such as Haller, Linneus, and Lorri, have attempted to reduce the different kinds of odours to cla.s.ses, but without any great success; for we are by no means so well acquainted with the physical nature of the odorous particles, as we are with that of light, sound, and the objects of touch; and till we do obtain a knowledge of these circ.u.mstances, which perhaps we never shall, it will be in vain to attempt any accurate cla.s.sification. The division of them into odours peculiar to the different kingdoms, is very inaccurate; for the odour of musk, which is thought to be peculiarly an animal odour, is developed in the solution of gold by some mineral solvents; it is perceptible in the leaves of the geranium moschatum, and some other vegetables. The smell of garlic is possessed by many vegetables, by a.r.s.enic, and by toads. The violet smell is perceived in some salts, and in the urine of persons who have taken turpentine. The same may be observed with respect to several other odours.

As taste keeps guard, or watches over the pa.s.sage by which food enters the body, so smell is placed as a sentinel at the entrance of the air pa.s.sage, and prevents any thing noxious from being received into the lungs by this pa.s.sage, which is always open. Besides, by this sense, we are invited or induced, to eat salutary food, and to avoid such as is corrupted, putrid, or rancid. The influence of the sense of smell on the animal machine is still more extensive: when a substance which powerfully affects the olfactory nerves is applied to the nostrils, it excites, in a wonderful manner, the whole nervous system, and produces greater effects in an instant, than the most powerful cordials or stimulants received by the mouth would produce in a considerable s.p.a.ce of time. Hence in syncope or fainting, in order to restore the action of the body, we apply volatile alkali, or other strong odorous substances, to the nostrils, and with the greatest effect. It may indeed for some time supply the place, and produce the effects, of solid nutriment usually received into the stomach We are told that Democritus supported his expiring life, and r.e.t.a.r.ded, for three days, the hour of death, by inhaling the smell of hot bread, when he could not take nutriment by the stomach.

Bacon likewise gives us an account of a man who lived a considerable time without meat or drink, and who appeared to be nourished by the odour of different plants, among which were garlic, onions, and others which had a powerful smell. In short, the stimulus which active and pleasant odours give to the nerves, seems to animate the whole frame; and to increase all the senses, internal and external.

The perfection of the organ of smell is different in different animals; some possessing it very acutely; others on the contrary having scarcely any sense of smell. We may in general observe that this sense is much more acute in many quadrupeds than in man: an in them the organ is much more extensive: in man, from the shape of the head, little opportunity is given for extending this organ, without greatly disfiguring the face. In the dog, the horse, and many other quadrupeds, the upper jaw being large, and full of cavities, much more extension is given to the membrane which is the organ of smell, which in some animals is beautifully plaited, in order to give it more surface. Hence a dog is capable of following game, or of tracing his master in a crowd, or in a road where it could not be done by the mere track. Nay, we are told of a pickpocket being discovered in a crowd, by a dog who was seeking its master, and who was directed to the man by the pocket handkerchief of his master, which the pickpocket had stolen. In dogs the sense of smell must be uncommonly delicate, to enable them to distinguish the way their master has gone in a crowded city.

The habit of living in society, however, deadens this sense in man as well as taste; for we have the advantage of learning the properties of bodies from each other by instruction, and have therefore less occasion to exercise this sense; and the less any sense is exercised, the less acute will it become; hence it is, that those whom necessity does not oblige to to exercise their senses and mental faculties, and who have nothing to do but lounge about, and consume the fruits of the earth, become half blind, half deaf, and, in general, have great deficiency in the sense of smell. The use of spirituous liquors, and particularly of tobacco in the form of snuff, serves likewise in a remarkable manner to deaden this sense.

Savages, however, who are continually obliged to exercise all their senses, have this, as well as others, in very great perfection. Their smell is so delicate and perfect, that it approaches to that of dogs.

Soemmering and Blumenbach indeed a.s.sert, that in Africans and Americans the nostrils are more extended, and the cavities in the bones lined with the olfactory membrane much larger than in Europeans.

I have already observed the powerful effects which some odours have upon the nervous system. There are some which agreeably excite it, and produce a pleasant and active state of the mind, while others, on the contrary, produce the most terrible convulsions, and even fainting. Those particular antipathies with respect to smells, arise sometimes from something in the original const.i.tution of the body, with which we are unacquainted, but generally from the senses having been powerfully and unpleasantly affected by certain odours at an early period of life. The latter may often be cured by resolution and perseverance, but the former cannot.

The sense of smell sometimes becomes too acute, either from a vitiated state of the organ itself, which is not often the case; or from an increased sensibility or irritability of the whole nervous system, which is observed in hysteria, phrenitis, and some fevers.

This sense is however more often found deficient; and this may arise from a fault in the brain or nerves, which may either proceed from external violence, or from internal causes. A defect of smell often arises from a vitiated state of the organ itself; for instance, if the nervous membrane is too dry, or covered with a thick mucus; of both of which we have an example in catarrh or common cold, where, at the beginning, the nostrils feel unusually dry, but as the disease advances, the pituitary membrane becomes covered with a thick mucus: in both states, the sense of smell is in general deficient, and sometimes nearly abolished.

This sense is sometimes depraved, and smells are perceived when no odorous substance is present; or odours are perceived to arise from substances, which are very different from those which we perceive in a sound state.

There are many diseases likewise of the nose, and neighbouring parts, which cause a depraved sensation; such as ulcers, cancer, caries; a diseased state of the mouth, teeth, throat, or lungs; or a vitiated state of the stomach, which sometimes exhales a vapour similar to that of sulphureted hydrogen. This sense likewise sometimes becomes depraved from a diseased state of the brain and nerves.

LECTURE VII.

SOUND AND HEARING.