Merchantmen-at-arms : the British merchants' service in the war Part 13

PART III

[Ill.u.s.tration: A STANDARD s.h.i.+P AT SEA]

XVI

THE CONVOY SYSTEM

EARLY in 1917 the losses of the merchants' s.h.i.+ps and men had a.s.sumed a proportion that called for a radical revision of the systems of naval protection. Concentrating their energies on but one specific form of sea offence, the enemy had developed their submarine arm to a high point of efficiency. Speed and power and lengthy sea-keeping qualities were attained. To all intents and purposes the U-boats had become surface destroyers with the added conveniency of being able to disappear at sight. They conducted their operations at long distance from the land and from their bases. The immense areas of the high seas offered a peculiar facility for 'cut-and-run' tactics: the system of independent sailings of the merchantmen provided them with a succession of victims, timed in a progression that allowed of solitary disposal.

Notwithstanding the matured experience of submarine methods gained by masters, the rapid evolution of counter-measures by the Royal Navy, the courage and determination of all cla.s.ses of seafarers, our s.h.i.+pping and that of our Allies and the neutral nations was being destroyed at a rate that foreshadowed disaster.

Schemes of rapid s.h.i.+p construction were advanced, lavish expenditure incurred, plans and occupation designed--all to ensure a replacement of tonnage at a future date. More material in point of prompt effect were the efforts of the newly formed Ministry of s.h.i.+pping to conserve existing tonnage by judicious and closely controlled employment. All but sternly necessary sea-traffic was eliminated: harbour work in loading and unloading was expedited: the virtues of a single control enhanced the active agency of the merchants' s.h.i.+ps--now devoted wholly to State service. Joined to the provisional and economic measures of the bureaux, Admiralty reorganized their methods of patrol and sea-supervision of the s.h.i.+ps. The entry of the United States into the world war provided a considerable increase of naval strength to the Allied fleets. Convoy measures, that before had been deemed impracticable, were now possible.

Destroyers and sloops could be released from fleet duties and were available as escorts. American flotillas crossed the Atlantic to protect the sea-routes: j.a.panese war craft a.s.sisted us in the Mediterranean.

In the adoption of the convoy system the Royal Navy was embarking on no new venture. Modern s.h.i.+ps and weapons may have brought a novel complication to this old form of sea-guardians.h.i.+p, but there is little in seafaring for which the traditions of the Naval Service cannot offer text and precedent. The constant of protection by convoy has remained unaltered by the advance of armament and the evolution of strange war craft: the high spirit of self-sacrifice is unchanged. When, in October 1917, the destroyers _Strongbow_ and _Mary Rose_ accepted action and faced three German cruisers, their commanders--undismayed by the tremendous odds--reacted the parts of the common sea-dramas of the Napoleonic wars. The same obstinate courage and unconquerable sea-pride forbade them to desert their convoy of merchantmen and seek the safety that their speed could offer. H.M.S. _Calgarian_, torpedoed and sinking, had yet thought for the convoy she escorted. Her last official signal directed the s.h.i.+ps to turn away from the danger.

[Ill.u.s.tration: BUILDING A STANDARD s.h.i.+P]

The convoy system did not spring fully served and equipped from the earlier and less exacting control. Tentative measures had to be devised and approved, a large staff to be recruited and trained. The clerical work of administration was not confined to the home ports; similar adjustment and preparation had to be conducted in friendly ports abroad.

As naval services were adapted to the new control, the system was extended. The comparatively simple procedure of sending destroyer escorts to meet homeward-bound convoys became involved with the timing and dispatch of a mercantile fleet sailing from a home port. The escorts were ordered out on a time-table that admitted of little derangement.

Sailing from a British port with a convoy of outward-bound vessels, the destroyers accompanied that fleet to a point in the Atlantic. There the convoy was dispersed, and the destroyers swung off to rendezvous with a similar convoy of inward-bound vessels. While the outgoing merchantmen were allowed to proceed independently after pa.s.sing through the most dangerous area, the homeward-bound vessels were grouped to sail in company from their port abroad. An ocean escort was provided--usually a cruiser of the older cla.s.s--and there was opportunity in the longer voyage for the senior officer to drill the convoy to some unity and precision in manoeuvre.

The commander of the ocean escort had no easy task in keeping his charges together. The age-old difficulty of grouping the s.h.i.+ps in the order of their sailing (now steaming) powers has not diminished since Lord Cochrane, in command of H.M.S. _Speedy_, complained of the 'fourteen sail of merchantmen' he convoyed from Cagliari to Leghorn. In the first enthusiasm of a new routine, masters were over-sanguine in estimation of the speed of their s.h.i.+ps. The average of former pa.s.sages offered a misleading guide. While it was possible to average ten and a half knots on a voyage from Cardiff to the Plate, proceeding at a speed that varied with the weather (and the coal), station could not easily be kept in a ten-knot convoy when--at the cleaning of the fires--the steam went 'back.' Swinging to the other extreme (after experience of the guide-s.h.i.+p's angry signals), we erred in reserving a margin that r.e.t.a.r.ded the full efficiency of a convoy. Our commodores had no small difficulty in conforming to the date of their convoy's arrival at a rendezvous. The 'cruising speed' of ten knots, that we had so blithely taken up when sailing from an oversea port, frequently toned down to an average of eight--with all the consequent derangement of the destroyers'

programme at the home end; a declared nine-knot convoy would romp home at ten, to find no escort at the rendezvous.

In time, we adjusted our estimate to meet the new demands. Efforts of the Ministry of s.h.i.+pping to evolve an order in our voyaging that would reduce irregularities had good results. The skilfully thought-out appointment of the s.h.i.+ps to suitable routes and trades had effect in producing a h.o.m.ogeneity that furthered the employment of our resources to the full. The whole conduct of our seafaring speedily came within the range of governmental control, as affecting the timely dispatch and arrival of the convoys. The quality of our fuel, the state of the hull, competence of seamen, formed subject for close investigation. The rate of loading or discharge, the urgency of repairs and refitment, were no longer judged on the note of our single needs; like the states of the weather and the tide, they were weighed and a.s.sessed in the formula that governed our new fleet movements.

The system of convoy protection had instant effect in curbing the activities of the U-boats. They could no longer work at sea on the lines that had proved so safe for them and disastrous for us. To get at the s.h.i.+ps they had now to come within range of the destroyers' armament.

Hydrophones and depth-charges reduced their vantage of submersion. The risks of sudden rupture of their plating by the swiftly moving keel of an escorting vessel did not tend to facilitate the working of their torpedo problem. In the coastal areas aircraft patrolled overhead the convoys, to add their hawk-sight to the ready swerve of the destroyers.

The chances of successful attack diminished as the hazard of discovery and destruction increased. Still, they were no fainthearts. The German submarine commanders, brutal and h.e.l.l-nurtured, are no cowards. The temptation of a ma.s.sed target attracted them, and they sought, in the confusion of the startled s.h.i.+ps, a means of escape from the destroyers when their shot into the 'brown' had run true.

Convoy has added many new duties to the sum of our activities when at sea. Signals have a.s.sumed an importance in the navigation. The flutter of a single flag may set us off on a new course at any minute of the day. Failure to read a hoist correctly may result in instant collision with a sister s.h.i.+p. We have need of all eyes on the bridge to keep apace with the orders of the commodore. In station-keeping we are brought to the practice of a branch of seamans.h.i.+p with which not many of us were familiar. Steaming independently, we had only one order for the engineer when we had dropped the pilot. 'Full speed ahead,' we said, and rang a triple jangle of the telegraph to let the engineer on watch know that there would be no more 'backing and filling'--and that he could now nip into the stokehold to see to the state of the fires. Gone--our easy ways! We have now to keep close watch on the guide-s.h.i.+p and fret the engineer to adjustments of the speed that keep him permanently at the levers. The fires may clag and grey down through unskilful stoking--the steam go 'back' without warning: ever and on, he has to jump to the gaping mouth of the voice-tube: "Whit? Two revolutions? Ach! Ah cannae gi' her ony mair!"--but he does. Slowly perhaps, but surely, as he coaxes steam from the errant stokers, we draw ahead and regain our place in the line. No small measure of the success of convoy is built up in the engine-rooms of our mercantile fleets.

Steaming in formation at night without lights adds to our 'grey heires.'

The menace of collision is ever present. Frequently, in the darkness, we have no guide-s.h.i.+p in plain sight to regulate our progress. The adjustments of speed, that in the daytime kept us moderately well in station, cannot be made. It is best to turn steadily to the average revolutions of a former period, and keep a good look-out for the broken water of a sister s.h.i.+p. On occasion there is the exciting medley of encountering a convoy bound the opposite way. In the confusion of wide dispersal and independent alterations of course to avert collision, there is lat.i.tude for the most extraordinary situations. An incident in the Mediterranean deserves imperishable record: "We left Malta, going east, and that night it was inky dark and we ran clean through a west-bound convoy. How there wasn't an accident, G.o.d only knows. We had to go full astern to clear one s.h.i.+p. She afterwards sidled up alongside of us and steamed east for an hour and a half. Then she hailed us through a megaphone: 'Steamer ahoy! Hallo! Where are you bound to?'

'Salonika,' we said. 'G.o.d Almighty,' he says. 'I'm bound to Gibraltar.

Where the h.e.l.l's _my_ convoy?'"

[Ill.u.s.tration: THE THAMES ESTUARY IN WAR-TIME]

XVII

OUTWARD BOUND

CUSTOMS clerks--may their name be blessed--are worth much more than their mere weight in gold. We do not mean the civil servants at the Custom House, who listen somewhat boredly to our solemn Oath and Compearance. Doubtless they, too, are of value, but our concern is with the owner's s.h.i.+pping clerk who attends our hesitating footsteps in the walk of s.h.i.+ps' business when we come on sh.o.r.e. He greets us on arrival from overseas, bearing our precious letters and the news of the firm: he has the devious paths of our entry-day's course mapped out, down to the train we may catch for home. As an oracle of the port, there is nothing he does not know: the trains, the week's bill at the 'Olympeambra,' the quickest and cheapest way to send packages to Backanford, suitable lodging in an outport, the standing of the s.h.i.+p laundries, the merits of the hotels--he has information about them all. During our stay in port he attends to our legal business. He speeds us off to the sea again, with all our many folios in order.

In peace, we had a settled round that embraced the Custom House for entry, the Board of Trade for crew affairs, the Notary for 'Protest.'

(". . . and experienced the usual heavy weather!") War has added to our visiting-list. We must make acquaintance with the many naval authorities who control our movements; the Consuls of the countries we propose to visit must see us in person; it would be discourteous to set sail without a p.p.c. on the Dam-s.h.i.+p and Otter officers. Ever and on, a new bureau is licensed to put a finger in our pie: we spend the hours of sailing-day in a round of call and counter-call. The Consul wishes to _vise_ our Articles--the Articles may not be handed over till we produce a slip from the Consul, the Consul will grant no slip till we have seen the S.I.O. "Have we ident.i.ty papers for every member of the crew, with photograph duly authenticated?"--"We are instructed not to grant pa.s.sports!" Back and forward we trudge while the customs clerk at our side tells cheerfully of the very much more trying time that fell to Captain Blank.

By wile and industry and pertinacity he unwinds the tangle of our longsh.o.r.e connections. He reconciles the enmity of the bureaux, pleads for us, apologizes for us, fights for us, engages for us. All we have to do is to sign, and look as though the commercial world stood still, awaiting the grant of that particular certificate. Undoubtedly the customs clerk is worth his weight in red, red gold!

On a bright summer afternoon we emerge from the Custom House. We have completed the round. In the case which the clerk carries we have authority to proceed on our lawful occasions. Customs have granted clearance; our manifests are stamped and ordered; the Articles of Agreement and the s.h.i.+p's Register are in our hands. The health of our port of departure is guaranteed by an imposing doc.u.ment. Undocking permit, vouchers for pilotage and light dues, discharge books, sea-brief, pa.s.sports, and store-sheets, are all there for lawful scrutiny. In personal safe-keeping, we have our sea-route ordered and planned. The hard work is done. There is no more _business_--nothing to do but to go on board and await the rise of tide that shall float us through the river channels to sea.

Cargo is stowed and completed; the stevedores are unrigging their gear when we reach the s.h.i.+p. Our coming is noted, and the hatch foremen (in antic.i.p.ation of a 'blessing') rouse the dockside echoes with carefully phrased orders to their gangs: "T' h.e.l.l wit' yes, now! Didn't Oi tell ye, Danny Kilgallen, that _th' Cyaptin_ wants thim tarpolyan sames turned fore an' aff!" (A s.h.i.+lling or two for him!)--"Beggin' yer pardon, sir--I don't see th' mate about--will we put them fenders below _for ye_ before we close th' hatch?" (Another _pourboire_!)--Number three has finished his hatchway, but his smiling regard calls for suitable acknowledgment. (After all, we shall have no use for British small coinage out West!) The head foreman, dear old John, is less ambitious.

All he wants is our understanding that he has stowed her tight--and a shake of the hand for good luck. Firmly we believe in the good luck that lies in the hand of an old friend. "'Bye, John!"

In groups, as their work is finished, the dockers go on sh.o.r.e, and leave to the crew the nowise easy task of clearing up the raffle, las.h.i.+ng down, and getting the lumbered decks in something approaching sea-trim.

Fortunately, there is time for preparation. Usually, we are dragged to the dock gates with the hatches uncovered, the derricks aloft, and the stowers still busy blocking off the last slings of the cargo. This time there will be no hurried (and improper) finish--the stevedores hurling their gear ash.o.r.e at the last minute, slipping down the fender lanyards, scurrying to a 'pier-head jump,' with the s.h.i.+p moving through the lock!

Some happy chance has brought completion within an hour or two of tide-time. The mate has opportunity to clear s.h.i.+p effectively, and we have leisure to plot and plan our sea-route (in antic.i.p.ation of hasty chart glances when we get outside) before the pier-master hails us--"Coom along wi' t' _Ma.s.silia_!"

Tugs drag us through the inner gates, pinch and angle our heavy hull in the basin, and enter us into the locks. The ma.s.sive gates are swung across, the sluices at the river-end eased to an outflow and, slowly, the great lock drains to the river level. The wires of our quay-fasts tauten and ring out to the tension of the outdraft, as we surge in the pent water-s.p.a.ce and drop with the falling level. Our high bridge view over the docks and the river is pared in inches by our gradual descent; the deck falls away under cope of the rough masonry; our outlook is turned upwards to where the dockmaster signals his orders. The s.h.i.+p seems suddenly to a.s.sume the proportions of a ca.n.a.l-boat in her contrast with the sea-scarred granite walls and the bulk of the towering gates.

At level with the flood, the piermen heave the outer lock-gates open for our pa.s.sage. We back out into the river, bring up, then come ahead, canting to a rudder pressure that sheers us into the fairway. The river is thronged by vessels at anchor or under way, docking and undocking on the top of the tide, and their manoeuvres make work for our pilot. At easy speed we work a traverse through the press at the dock entrances and head out to seaward.

[Ill.u.s.tration: DROPPING THE PILOT]

Evening is drawing on as we enter the sea-channels--a quiet close to a fine summer day. Out on the estuary it is hard to think of war at sea.

Shrimpers are drifting up on the tide, the vivid glow of their tanned canvas standing over a mirrored reflection in the flood. The deep of the fairway is scored by pa.s.sage of coasting steamers, an unending procession that joins lights.h.i.+p to lights.h.i.+p in a chain of transport.

The sea-reaches look in no way different from the peaceful channels we have known so long, the buoys and the beacons we pa.s.s in our courses seem absurdly tranquil, as though lacking any knowledge that they are signposts to a newly treacherous sea. Only from the land may one draw a note of warning--on sh.o.r.e there are visible signs of warfare. The searchlights of the forts, wheeling over the surface of the channels, turn on us and steady for a time in inspection. Farther inland, ghostly shafts and lances are sweeping overhead, in ceaseless scrutiny of the quiet sky.

At a bend in the fairway we close and speak the channel patrol steamer and draw no disquieting impression from her answer to our hail. The port is still open and we may proceed on our pa.s.sage to join convoy at ----.

An escort will meet us in 1235 and conduct us to 5678. 'Carry on!'

It is quite dark when we round the outer buoy and reduce speed to drop our pilot. The night is windless and a calm sea gives promise of a good pa.s.sage. We bring up close to the cutter, and, shortly, with a stout 'Good-bye,' the pilot swings overside and clambers down the long side-ladder to his boat. We shut off all lights and steer into the protecting gloom of the night.

[Ill.u.s.tration: EXAMINATION SERVICE PATROL BOARDING AN INCOMING STEAMER]

XVIII

RENDEZVOUS

ALMOST hourly they round the Point, turning in from seaward with a fine swing and thrash of propellors to steer a careful course through the boom defences. Screaming gulls wheel and poise and dive around them, exulting to welcome the new-comers in, and the musical clank and rattle of anchor cables, as the s.h.i.+ps bring up in the Roads, mark emphatic periods to this--the short coasting section of the voyage.

"Safe here!" sing the chains, as they link out over the open hawse.

"Thus far, anyway, in spite of fog and coast danger, of mine and submarine," and the brown hill-side joins echo to the clamour of the wheeling gulls, letting all know the s.h.i.+ps have come in to join the convoy.