The Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century Part 11

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 106.--SYMINGTON'S STEAMBOAT, 1801.]

The first steamboat of the Nineteenth Century was the "Charlotte Dundas," built by William Symington in 1801, see Fig. 106, and used on the Forth and Clyde Ca.n.a.l in 1802. She had a double acting "Watt engine," which transmitted power by a connecting rod to a crank on the paddle-wheel shaft. The boat had a single paddle wheel in the middle near the stern, and was intended only for ca.n.a.l use, in the place of horses. It was abandoned for fear of was.h.i.+ng the banks.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 107.--STEVENS' TWIN SCREW PROPELLER AND ENGINE, 1804.]

In 1804 Col. John Stevens constructed a boat on the Hudson, driven by a Watt engine, and having a tubular boiler of his own invention and a twin screw propeller. The engine, boiler, and twin screws are shown in Fig.

107. The same year Oliver Evans used a stern paddle wheel boat on the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. It was driven by a double acting high pressure engine, and geared so as to rotate wagon wheels by which it was transported on land, as well as the paddle wheels when on the water. It was in primitive form both a locomotive and a steamboat.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 108.--THE "CLERMONT," 1807.]

In 1807 Robert Fulton built the "Clermont," and permanently established steam navigation on the Hudson River between New York and Albany. Fulton in 1802-1803, while living in Paris with Mr. Joel Barlow, and with the aid and encouragement of Chancellor Livingston, of New Jersey, had built an earlier steamboat 86 feet long, and although it broke down owing to defects in the strength of the hull, he was so encouraged that he ordered Messrs. Boulton & Watt, of England, to send to America a new steam engine, and upon his return to America he built the "Clermont."

This vessel, although not the first steamboat, was nevertheless the first to make a voyage of any considerable length, and to run regularly and continuously for practical purposes, and Fulton was the first inventor in this field whose labors were not to be cla.s.sed as an abandoned experiment. The "Clermont" as originally built was quite a different looking boat from that usually given in the histories. A model of the original construction is to be found in the National Museum at Was.h.i.+ngton. In the winter of 1807-8 she was remodeled as shown in Fig.

108. She then appeared as a side wheel steamer, whose wheels were provided with outer guards and enclosed in side wheel houses, and whose shaft had outer bearings in the guards, which were not in the original boat. The hull was 133 feet long, 18 feet beam, and 7 feet depth. The "Clermont's" engines were coupled to the crank shaft by a bell crank, and the paddle wheel shaft was separated from the crank shaft, but connected with it by gearing. The cylinders were 24 inches in diameter, and 4 foot stroke. The paddle wheels had buckets 4 feet long with a dip of 2 feet. She made the first trip from New York to Albany of 150 miles in 32 hours, and returned in 30 hours, which was the first voyage of any considerable length ever made by steam power.

The honor of inventing the steamboat has been claimed for many inventors, and that many worthy experimenters had been working in this field, and that Fulton had the benefit of their experience is true. The fact is, however, that the evolution of any great, invention is a slow and c.u.mulative process, the product of many minds, and while the proposers, suggesters, and experimenters are ent.i.tled to their share of the credit, it is the man who achieves success and gives to the public the benefit of his labors whom the world honors, and in this connection the name of Fulton stands pre-eminent, for although the "Clermont" was 264 years later than the steamboat of Blasco de Garay, the "Clermont"

marks the beginning of practical steam navigation, and whatever the claims of other inventors may be, it is certain that steam navigation, established by Fulton in 1807, on the Hudson, preceded the practical use of the steamboat in any other country by at least five years, for it was not until 1812 that Henry Bell, of Scotland, built the "Comet," that plied between Glasgow and Greenock, on the Clyde, and not until 1814 was a steam packet used for hire on the Thames in England.

At the same time that Fulton was in Paris making his first experiments with the steamboat, Col. John Stevens, the most celebrated boat builder and engineer of his day, was actively experimenting in America in the same line. Having in 1804 made the first application of steam to the screw propeller, he in 1807 built the "Phnix," which was driven by paddle wheels. The "Phnix" was constructed shortly after Fulton's boat, but was barred from use on the Hudson by the exclusive monopoly obtained by Fulton and Livingston from the State Legislature, and she was accordingly taken from New York to Philadelphia by sea, which was the first ocean voyage by a steam vessel.

The first steamboat on the Mississippi was the "Orleans," of 100 tons, built at Pittsburg by Fulton and Livingston in 1811. She had a stern wheel, and went from Pittsburg to New Orleans in 14 days.

Although the first trip out to sea was made in 1808 by Col. Stevens' son in taking the "Phnix" from New York to Philadelphia, no attempt had been made to cross the ocean until 1819. In this year the "Savannah," an American steamer of 380 tons, performed this feat, and had the honor of being the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic. In 1824 the "Enterprise," an English steamer, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and went to India.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 109.--SCREW PROPELLER OF THE "ROBT. F. STOCKTON,"

ERICSSON'S PATENT, 1836.]

The screw propeller employed by Colonel Stevens in 1804 was not a new invention with him, as popularly supposed, but had its origin early in the preceding century, being a mere development of the ancient wind wheel. In 1836 it was further developed by Francis P. Smith and by Capt.

John Ericsson, then living in England. Ericsson took out British patent No. 7,149, of 1836, and United States patent No. 588, of Feb. 1, 1838, and built several screw steamers, and through Capt. Robert F. Stockton, of the United States Navy, succeeded in having a screw steamer, the "Robert F. Stockton," built in accordance with the plans of his patent and sent to the United States. The arrangement of her machinery is seen in Fig. 109. She had two propellers on the same axis, but revolving in opposite directions, one being on the central shaft and the other on a concentric tube. The engines were coupled directly to the propeller shafts, which feature was one of Ericsson's improvements, and has continued to be the approved form to this day.

In the early history of steam navigation the side wheel steamer was the favorite, and was employed for ocean travel as well as for inland waters. In 1840 the "Brittania," the first Cunarder, commenced the career of that celebrated line. This vessel had side wheels, as did also the "United States," shown in Fig. 110, which was the first American steamer built expressly for the Atlantic trade. In 1852 the United States mail steamer "Arctic," of the Collins line, was regarded as the greyhound of the Atlantic, her time being 9 days, 17 hours and 12 minutes. She also had side wheels.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 110.--STEAMER "UNITED STATES," 1847.]

Side wheel steamers for inland waters, and screw propellers for sea service, however, in time established their fitness for their respective scenes of action. In side wheel steamers the most notable improvements have been in stiffening the hull by braces, and the adoption of feathering paddle wheels, whose function is to cause the paddles to enter and leave the water in vertical position without dragging dead water. Manley in 1862, and Morgan in 1875, patented practical forms of the feathering paddle wheel. In screw propellers, Woodcroft in 1832, and Griffiths at a later period, made valuable improvements. The surface condenser was used by Hall in 1838 on the steams.h.i.+p "Wilberforce," and Sickels in 1841 invented the drop cut-off.

[Ill.u.s.tration:

{"GREAT EASTERN," SCREW AND PADDLE WHEELS, 1858. LENGTH, FIG. 111.--{692 FEET, SPEED 12 KNOTS.

{"OCEANIC," TWIN SCREW, 1899. LENGTH, 704 FEET, SPEED, 20 {KNOTS.]

In 1854 the "Great Eastern" was begun and was finished in 1858. This was the largest steam vessel ever built up to this time, and has continued to hold the record for size up to the year 1899, when her dimensions were exceeded by the "Oceanic," which s.h.i.+ps are put in comparison in Fig. 111. The length of the "Great Eastern" was 692 feet, beam 83 feet, depth 57 feet, draft 25 feet, displacement 27,000 tons, and speed 12 knots. She was designed by the English engineer Brunel, and was intended for the Australian trade. She had both a screw propeller and paddle wheels at the side, with four engines coupled to each. The paddle wheel engines had steam cylinders 74 inches in diameter, with 14 foot stroke, and those of the screw engines were 84 inches in diameter and 4 foot stroke. Collectively they were of 10,000 horse power. The paddle wheels were 56 feet in diameter, and the screw propeller 24 feet. On her first voyage to New York, across the Atlantic, in 1860, she carried from 15 to 24 pounds of steam and consumed 2,877 tons of coal. Her cost was $3,831,520. This mammoth vessel was too large and unwieldy for the uses for which she was designed, and proved a bad investment. She served, however, a most useful purpose, by virtue of her great bulk, steadiness, and carrying capacity, for relaying the Atlantic cable in 1866, and others in 1873-1874.

In 1874 the "Castalia" was built. This was a steamer with two parallel hulls, decked across, and designed for greater steadiness in crossing the English Channel. The "Bessemer" steamer, designed for the same purpose, and built about the same time, had four paddle wheels, and the entire cabin was hung on pivots, so that it could not partake of the sea motion.

In later years great improvements have been made in reducing the weight of the engines, in forced blast, steam steering gear, anchor hoisting devices, water-tight bulkheads, surface condensers, electric lights, and signalling devices. By the year 1880 the standard form of marine engine for large powers had become the compound double cylinder type, expanding steam from an initial pressure as high as 90 pounds. In 1890 triple expansion engines had become common, employing three cylinders, and using steam with an initial pressure as high as 180 pounds. In 1890 McDougal's whale-back steamers were introduced. See United States patents No. 429,467 and 429,468, June 3, 1890, and No. 500,411, June 27, 1893.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 112.--STEAMBOAT "PRISCILLA."]

In no country in the world are such fine examples of side wheel steamers to be found as in the United States, and in no country are there such splendid reaches of inland waters as theatres for their performances.

The "Priscilla," shown in Fig. 112, of the Fall River Line, plying on Long Island Sound, and the "Adirondack," on the Hudson, are fine examples of this type. The "Priscilla," which is said to be the largest river boat in the world, is 440 feet 6 inches long and 93 feet breadth over the guards. She is driven by double compound inclined engines, has feathering paddle wheels 35 feet in diameter and 14 feet face, and her speed is over 20 miles an hour. The "Adirondack," whose engines and feathering paddle wheel are shown in Fig. 113, is 412 feet long and 90 feet breadth over guards. The engines and paddle wheels of the "Adirondack" are distinctly representative of the modern American side wheel steamer.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 113.--ENGINES AND PADDLE WHEEL OF STEAMER "ADIRONDACK" ON THE HUDSON RIVER.]

The largest and in many respects the highest type of marine architecture is to be found in the modern ocean greyhound for transatlantic trade. In recent years the rival companies have vied with each other in the effort to excel, and steams.h.i.+ps of larger size, greater speed, and more perfect equipment have followed each other, until it would seem that the limit had been reached. In the accompanying table the largest and most recent steamers are placed in comparison with the "Great Eastern."

DIMENSIONS OF THE LARGEST OCEAN STEAMERS.

==============+======+=======+======+======+========+=========+======= NAME OF DATE. LENGTH BEAM. DEPTH. DRAUGHT. DISPLACE- MAXIMUM s.h.i.+P. OVER MENT. SPEED.

ALL. --------------+------+-------+------+------+-------- ---------+------- FEET. FEET. FEET. FEET. TONS. KNOTS.

Great Eastern 1858 692 83 57 25 27,000 12 Paris 1888 560 63 42 26 13,000 20 Teutonic 1890 585 57 42 26 12,000 20 Campania 1893 625 65 41 28 19,000 22 St. Paul 1895 554 63 42 27 14,000 21 Kaiser Wilhelm 1897 649 66 43 29 20,000 22.35 der Grosse Oceanic 1899 704 68 49 32 28,500 20 Deutschland 1900 686 67? 44 29 22,000 23 ==============+======+=======+======+======+========+=========+=======

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 114.--"KAISER WILHELM DER GROSSE."]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 115.--"OCEANIC" COMPARED WITH BROADWAY BUILDINGS.]

The "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse," owned by the North German Lloyd Company, and built in 1897, is shown in Fig. 114, and for three years held the record as the fastest steams.h.i.+p afloat. The "Kaiser Wilhelm"

was followed by the "Oceanic," in 1899, of the White Star Company, which is the largest ocean steamer ever built, exceeding the proportions of the "Great Eastern." Just what the dimensions of the "Oceanic" mean, as given in the preceding tables, can be best ill.u.s.trated by the accompanying Fig. 115, in which she is juxtaposed with several blocks of large buildings on Broadway, New York, opposite City Hall Park. If the "Oceanic" were placed on end beside Was.h.i.+ngton's Monument, at the United States Capital, she would tower 150 feet above the top of the same. An ordinary brick house four rooms deep and three stories high could be built with its length crosswise in her hull. There is accommodation for 410 first-cla.s.s pa.s.sengers, 300 second-cla.s.s pa.s.sengers, and 1,000 third cla.s.s, and as her crew will number 390, the total number of souls on board, when she carries her full complement, will be 2,100.

The latest achievement in marine architecture, however, is the "Deutschland," built for the Hamburg-American Company. The "Deutschland"

is not quite so large as the "Oceanic," but is of higher speed, her maximum speed of 23 knots an hour exceeding that of any other ocean steamer. The "Savannah," the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic, made the trip in 1819 in 26 days. The "Deutschland" in her eastward trip September 4, 1900, crossed the Atlantic in 5 days 7 hours and 38 minutes, which is the fastest time on record. The "Deutschland" is of 35,640 horse power, her two bronze propellers are 23 feet diameter, and weigh 30 tons, and her propeller shafts are 25 inches in diameter. The cranks of her propeller shafts, like those of the "Kaiser Wilhelm" and the "Oceanic," are set according to the Schlick system, to reduce vibration. The "Deutschland's" engines are seen in Fig. 92, and in general appearance the s.h.i.+p resembles the "Kaiser Wilhelm." Still larger and possibly swifter steams.h.i.+ps are in process of construction, viz.: the "Kaiser Wilhelm II.," by the North German Lloyd Company, and a mammoth unnamed s.h.i.+p by the White Star Line, whose length of 750 feet will exceed all others.

It may be interesting to note in familiar terms what these enormous traveling palaces comprehend in equipment. For the safety and comfort of pa.s.sengers, the great length reduces the pitching, bilge keels prevent rolling, and the Schlick system of cranks neutralizes vibration in the engine. Strong bulkheads, and double bottoms with air-tight compartments, impart buoyancy in case of collision. Boilers are placed in separate water-tight compartments, so that damage to one does not disable the others. Powerful pumps are arranged to discharge inflowing water, and the best of life boats are provided. s.p.a.cious dining rooms, promenade decks, drawing rooms, pianos, library, smoking room, state rooms, cabins for children, toilets, baths, medicine stores, a printing office, and electric lights everywhere, furnish every want and satisfy every luxurious taste. The cuisine includes a refrigerating plant, the finest ranges, and provisions galore. It may be interesting to the housewife to see the market list of a modern transatlantic steamer. A specimen is partially represented in the following: 25,450 pounds of fresh meat, 3,250 pounds of fish, 6,370 pounds of game and poultry, 12,715 pounds of bread, 43 barrels of flour, 3,938 pounds of b.u.t.ter, 1,307 pounds of coffee, 2,790 pounds of sugar, 102 pounds of tea, 7,220 pounds of fresh fruit; 1,230 gallons of milk, 26,106 eggs, 29,180 oranges and lemons, 7,033 bottles of mineral water, 1,800 bottles of beer, 2,688 gallons of beer in casks, 1,240 bottles of wine, 630 bottles of champagne, 1,600 heads of lettuce, 800 jars of preserved fruits, and other things in proportion.

In the matter of size the "Oceanic" surpa.s.ses all previous efforts in s.h.i.+p building, but ocean steamers do not reach the highest speed attainable. The little "Turbinia," a 40 ton craft equipped with a compound rotary steam turbine of the Parsons type, has attained a speed of 32 knots an hour. An even greater speed has recently been attained by the larger boat, "Hai Lung," constructed in England for the Chinese Government, which vessel was equipped with reciprocating engines, and is credited with having made a run of 18 knots at an average speed of 35 knots an hour. The highest speed ever attained, however, is by the British torpedo boat "Viper," which is 210 feet long, and, like the "Turbinia," is equipped with the Parsons steam turbines. In a recent trial the "Viper" covered a measured mile at the rate of 37.1 knots, or about 43 miles an hour.

In many respects the most important branch of steam navigation in recent years has been its war vessels. The great navies of the world at the end of 1898[3] ranked as follows: England, 1,557,522 tons; France, 731,629 tons; Russia, 453,899 tons; United States, 303,070 tons; Germany, 299,637 tons; Italy, 286,175 tons, and they all owe their efficiency entirely to steam. The first steam war vessel was built in 1814 by Fulton for the defence of New York Harbor, during the then existing war times. She was known as the "Demologos" (voice of the people), or "Fulton the First." As shown in the original designs, Fig. 116, she is a double ender, whose sides were to be 5 feet thick. In her middle was a channel way or well containing a protected paddle wheel 16 feet in diameter, 14 feet wide, and having a dip of 4 feet. A single cylinder engine turned the paddle wheel on one side, and was balanced by the boiler on the other side. Although intended to have only twenty guns, she was equipped, when finished, with thirty long 32-pounder guns and two Columbiad 100-pounders. It was proposed also to have submarine guns suspended from each bow. An engine was also to be used to discharge hot water on the enemy, and a furnace was to be provided for heating the cannon b.a.l.l.s red hot. She was 156 feet long, 20 feet deep, and 56 feet broad, and was regarded as a very formidable vessel. Her cost was $278,544. Iron-clad floating batteries were first used in 1855 in the Crimean war, and shortly afterward the French built the first sea-going iron-clad, "Gloire," followed in 1859 by the British iron-clad, "Warrior."

[3] The figures represent a selective list which excludes about 15 per cent. of old and inefficient vessels.

[Ill.u.s.tration: "DEMOLOGOS"

Figure I^{st} Transverse section A _her Boiler,_ B _the steam Engine,_ C _the water-wheel,_

EE _her wooden walls 5 feet thick, diminis.h.i.+ng to below the waterline as at_ FF.

_draught of water 9 feet_ DD _her gun deck._

Figure II^{d} _This shews her gun deck. 140 feet long,

24 feet wide; mounting 20 guns_ A _the Water wheel_

Figure III^{d}

_Side View_

FIG. 116.]

The civil war in 1861 brought with it a novel and striking form of war vessel known as the "Monitor."[4] It was built from plans of Capt.

Ericsson, an engineer of the ripest experience, skill, and attainments, who had then come to make his home in the United States. He undertook to construct for the Navy Department of the United States some form of iron clad steam batteries of light draft, suitable to navigate the rivers and harbors of the Confederate States. The "Monitor" was the result. The salient features, shown in vertical cross section in Fig. 117, are a low deck projecting but a few inches above the water line, so as to present as little target as possible to the enemy, and a revolving and heavily armored turret containing the battery of guns. In 1862 the Confederate forces had reconstructed a steam vessel with a chicken-coop-shaped covering of armor, that proved a formidable engine of war, which was practically invulnerable to the attacks of ordinary war vessels, and was doing great damage to the Union vessels. In the spring of 1862 the "Monitor" met the "Merrimac" in engagement in Hampton Roads, and established the great value of the turret monitor.