Cyclopedia of Telephony and Telegraphy Volume I Part 9

Types of Primary Cells. Primary cells may be divided into two general cla.s.ses: first, those adapted to furnish constant current; and second, those adapted to furnish only intermittent currents. The difference between cells in this respect rests largely in the means employed for preventing or lessening polarization. Obviously in a cell in which polarization is entirely prevented the current may be allowed to flow constantly until the cell is completely exhausted; that is, until the zinc is all eaten up or until the hydrogen is exhausted from the electrolyte or both. On the other hand some cells are so const.i.tuted that polarization takes place faster than the means intended to prevent it can act. In other words, the polarization gradually gains on the preventive means and so gradually reduces the current by increasing the resistance of the cell and lowering its electromotive force. In cells of this kind, however, the arrangement is such that if the cell is allowed to rest, that is, if the external circuit is opened, the depolarizing agency will gradually act to remove the hydrogen from the unattacked electrode and thus place the cell in good condition for use again.

Of these two types of primary cells the intermittent-current cell is of far greater use in telephony than the constant-current cell. This is because the use of primary batteries in telephony is, in the great majority of cases, intermittent, and for that reason a cell which will give a strong current for a few minutes and which after such use will regain practically all of its initial strength and be ready for use again, is more desirable than one which will give a weaker current continuously throughout a long period of time.

Since the cells which are adapted to give constant current are commonly used in connection with circuits that are continuously closed, they are called _closed-circuit cells_. The other cells, which are better adapted for intermittent current, are commonly used on circuits which stand open most of the time and are closed only occasionally when their current is desired. For this reason these are termed _open-circuit cells_.

_Open-Circuit Cells_. LeClanche Cell:--By far the most important primary cell for telephone work is the so-called LeClanche cell. This a.s.sumes a large variety of forms, but always employs zinc as the negatively charged element, carbon as the positively charged element, and a solution of sal ammoniac as the electrolyte. This cell employs a chemical method of taking care of polarization, the depolarizing agent being peroxide of manganese, which is closely a.s.sociated with the carbon element.

The original form of the LeClanche cell, a form in which it was very largely used up to within a short time ago, is shown in Fig. 61. In this the carbon element is placed within a cylindrical jar of porous clay, the walls of this jar being of such consistency as to allow moisture slowly to permeate through it. Within this porous cup, as it is called, a plate or disk of carbon is placed, and around this the depolarizing agent, consisting of black oxide of manganese. This is usually mixed with, broken carbon, so as to increase the effective area of the carbon element in contact with the depolarizing agent, and also to reduce the total internal resistance of the cell. The zinc electrode usually consisted merely in a rod of zinc, as shown, with a suitable terminal at its upper end.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 61. LeClanche Cell]

The chemical action taking place within the LeClanche cell is, briefly, as follows: Sal ammoniac is chemically known as chloride of ammonium and is a combination of chlorine and ammonia. In the action which is a.s.sumed to accompany the pa.s.sage of current in this cell, the sal ammoniac is decomposed, the chlorine leaving the ammonia to unite with an atom of the zinc plate, forming chloride of zinc and setting free ammonia and hydrogen. The ammonia is immediately dissolved in the water of the cell, and the hydrogen enters the porous cup and would speedily polarize the cell by adhering to the carbon plate but for the fact that it encounters the peroxide of manganese. This material is exceedingly rich in oxygen and it therefore readily gives up a part of its oxygen, which forms water by combination with the already liberated hydrogen and leaves what is termed a _sesquioxide_ of manganese. This absorption or combination of the hydrogen prevents immediate polarization, but hydrogen is evolved during the operation of the cell more rapidly than it can combine with[typo was 'wth'] the oxygen of the manganese, thereby leading to polarization more rapidly than the depolarizer can prevent it when the cell is heavily worked.

When, however, the cell is left with its external circuit open for a time, depolarization ensues by the gradual combination of the hydrogen with the oxygen of the peroxide of manganese, and as a result the cell recuperates and in a short time attains its normal electromotive force.

The electromotive force of this cell when new is about 1.47 volts. The internal resistance of the cell of the type shown in Fig. 61 is approximately 1 ohm, ordinarily less rather than more.

A more recent form of LeClanche cell is shown in cross-section in Fig.

62. This uses practically the same materials and has the same chemical action as the old disk LeClanche cell shown in Fig. 61. It dispenses, however, with the porous cup and instead employs a carbon electrode, which in itself forms a cup for the depolarizing agent.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 62. Carbon Cylinder LeClanche Cell]

The carbon electrode is in the form of a corrugated hollow cylinder which engages by means of an internal screw thread a corresponding screw thread on the outer side of the carbon cover. Within this cylinder is contained a mixture of broken carbon and peroxide of manganese. The zinc electrode is in the form of a hollow cylinder almost surrounding the carbon electrode and separated therefrom by means of heavy rubber bands stretched around the carbon. The rod, forming the terminal of the zinc, pa.s.ses through a porcelain bus.h.i.+ng on the cover plate to obviate short circuits. This type of cell has an electromotive force of about 1.55 volts and recuperates very quickly after severe use. It also has considerably lower internal resistance than the type of LeClanche cell employing a porous cup, and, therefore, is capable of generating a considerably larger current.

Cells of this general type have a.s.sumed a variety of forms. In some the carbon electrode, together with the broken carbon and peroxide of manganese, were packed into a canvas bag which was suspended in the electrolyte and usually surrounded by the zinc electrode. In other forms the carbon electrode has moulded with it the manganese depolarizer.

In order to prevent the salts within the cell from creeping over the edge of the containing gla.s.s jar and also over the upper portion of the carbon electrode, it is common practice to immerse the upper end of the carbon element and also the upper edge of the gla.s.s jar in hot paraffin.

In setting up the LeClanche cell, place not more than four ounces of white sal ammoniac in the jar, fill the jar one-third full of water, and stir until the sal ammoniac is all dissolved. Then put the carbon and zinc elements in place. A little water poured in the vent hole of the porous jar or carbon cylinder will tend to hasten the action.

An excess of sal ammoniac should not be used, as a saturated solution tends to deposit crystals on the zinc; on the other hand, the solution should not be allowed to become too weak, as in that case the chloride of zinc will form on the zinc. Both of these causes materially increase the resistance of the cell.

A great advantage of the LeClanche cell is that when not in use there is but little material waste. It contains no highly corrosive chemicals. Such cells require little attention, and the addition of water now and then to replace the loss due to evaporation is about all that is required until the elements become exhausted. They give a relatively high electromotive force and have a moderately low internal resistance, so that they are capable of giving rather large currents for short intervals of time. If properly made, they recuperate quickly after polarization due to heavy use.

_Dry Cell_. All the forms of cells so far considered may be quite properly termed _wet cells_ because of the fact that a free liquid electrolyte is used. This term is employed in contradistinction to the later developed cell, commonly termed the _dry cell_. This term "dry cell" is in some respects a misnomer, since it is not dry and if it were dry it would not work. It is essential to the operation of these cells that they shall be moist within, and when such moisture is dissipated the cell is no longer usable, as there is no further useful chemical action.

The dry cells are all of the LeClanche type, the liquid electrolyte of that type being replaced by a semi-solid substance that is capable of retaining moisture for a considerable period.

As in the ordinary wet LeClanche cell, the electrodes are of carbon and zinc, the zinc element being in the form of a cylindrical cup and forming the retaining vessel of the cell, while the carbon element is in the form of a rod or plate and occupies a central position with regard to the zinc, being held out of contact with the zinc, however, at all points.

A cross-section of an excellent form of dry cell is shown in Fig. 63.

The outer casing is of zinc, formed in the shape of a cylindrical cup, and serves not only as the retaining vessel, but as the negatively charged electrode. The outer surface of the zinc is completely covered on its sides and bottom with heavy pasteboard so as to insulate it from bodies with which it may come in contact, and particularly from the zinc cups of other cells used in the same battery. The positively charged electrode is a carbon rod corrugated longitudinally, as shown, in order to obtain greater surface. This rod is held in the center of the zinc cup out of contact therewith, and the intervening s.p.a.ce is filled with a mixture of peroxide of manganese, powdered carbon, and sal ammoniac. Several thicknesses of blotting paper const.i.tute a lining for the inner portion of the zinc electrode and serve to prevent the manganese mixture from coming directly into contact therewith. The cell is sealed with pitch, which is placed on a layer of sand and sawdust mixed in about equal parts.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 63. Dry Cell]

The electrolyte in such cells varies largely as to quant.i.ties and proportions of the materials employed in various types of cells, and also varies in the method in which the elements are introduced into the container.

The following list and approximate proportions of material will serve as a fair example of the filling mixture in well-known types of cells.

Manganese dioxide 45 per cent Carbon or graphite, or both 45 per cent Sal ammoniac 7 per cent Zinc chloride 3 per cent

Water is added to the above and a sufficient amount of mixture is taken for each cell to fill the zinc cup about seven-eighths full when the carbon is in place. The most suitable quant.i.ty of water depends upon the original dryness and fineness of material and upon the quality of the paper lining.

In some forms of dry batteries, starch or other paste is added to improve the contact of the electrolyte with the zinc and promote a more even distribution of action throughout the electrolyte. Mercury, too, is often added to effect amalgamation of the zinc.

As in the ordinary wet type of LeClanche cell, the purpose of the manganese is to act as a depolarizer; the carbon or graphite being added to give conductivity to the manganese and to form a large electrode surface. It is important that the sal ammoniac, which is the active agent of the cell, should be free from lumps in order to mix properly with the manganese and carbon.

A small local action takes place in the dry cell, caused by the dissimilar metals necessarily employed in soldering up the zinc cup and in soldering the terminal rod of zinc to the zinc cup proper. This action, however, is slight in the better grades of cells. As a result of this, and also of the gradual drying out of the moisture within the cell, these cells gradually deteriorate even when not in use--this is commonly called _shelf-wear_. Shelf-wear is much more serious in the very small sizes of dry cells than in the larger ones.

Dry cells are made in a large number of shapes and sizes. The most useful form, however, is the ordinary cylindrical type. These are made in sizes varying from one and one-half inches high and three-quarters inch in diameter to eight inches high and three and three-quarters inches in diameter. The most used and standard size of dry cell is of cylindrical form six inches high and two and three-quarters inches in diameter. The dry cell when new and in good condition has an open-circuit voltage of from 1.5 to 1.6 volts. Perhaps 1.55 represents the usual average.

A cell of the two and three-quarters by six-inch size will give throughout its useful life probably thirty ampere hours as a maximum, but this varies greatly with the condition of use and the make of cell. Its effective voltage during its useful life averages about one volt, and if during this life it gives a total discharge of thirty ampere hours, the fair energy rating of the cell will be thirty watt-hours. This may not be taken as an accurate figure, however, as the watt-hour capacity of a cell depends very largely, not only on the make of the cell, but on the rate of its discharge.

An examination of Fig. 63 shows that the dry cell has all of the essential elements of the LeClanche cell. The materials of which the electrodes are made are the same and the porous cup of the disk LeClanche cell is represented in the dry cell by the blotting-paper cylinder, which separates the zinc from the carbon electrode. The positively charged electrode must not be considered as merely the carbon plate or rod alone, but rather the carbon rod with its surrounding mixture of peroxide of manganese and broken carbon. Such being the case, it is obvious that the separation between the electrodes is very small, while the surface presented by both electrodes is very large. As a result, the internal resistance of the cell is small and the current which it will give on a short circuit is correspondingly large. A good cell of the two and three-quarters by six-inch size will give eighteen or twenty amperes on short-circuit, when new.

As the action of the cell proceeds, zinc chloride and ammonia are formed, and there being insufficient water to dissolve the ammonia, there results the formation of double chlorides of zinc and ammonium.

These double chlorides are less soluble than the chlorides and finally occupy the pores of the paper lining between the electrolyte and the zinc and greatly increase the internal resistance of the cell. This increase of resistance is further contributed to by the gradual drying out of the cell as its age increases.

Within the last few years dry batteries have been so perfected mechanically, chemically, and electrically that they have far greater outputs and better recuperative power than any of the other types of LeClanche batteries, while in point of convenience and economy, resulting from their small size and non-breakable, non-spillable features and low cost, they leave no room for comparison.

_Closed-Circuit Cells_. Gravity-Cell:--Coming now to the consideration of closed-circuit or constant-current cells, the most important is the well-known gravity, or blue-stone, cell, devised by Daniell. It is largely used in telegraphy, and often in telephony in such cases as require a constantly flowing current of small quant.i.ty. Such a cell is shown in Fig. 64.

The elements of the gravity cell are electrodes of copper and zinc.

The solution in which the copper plate is immersed is primarily a solution of copper sulphate, commonly known as blue-stone, in water.

The zinc plate after the cell is in action is immersed in a solution of sulphate of zinc which is formed around it.

The gla.s.s jar is usually cylindrical, the standard sizes being 5 inches diameter and 7 inches deep; and also 6 inches diameter and 8 inches deep. The copper electrode is of sheet copper of the form shown, and it is partly covered with crystals of blue-stone or copper sulphate. Frequently, in later forms of cells, the copper electrode consists merely of a straight, thick, rectangular bar of copper laid horizontally, directly on top of the blue-stone crystals. In all cases a rubber-insulated wire is attached by riveting to the copper electrode, and pa.s.ses up through the electrolyte to form the positive terminal.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 64. Gravity Cell]

The zinc is, as a rule, of crowfoot form, as shown, whence this cell derives the commonly applied name of _crowfoot cell_. This is essentially a two-fluid cell, for in its action zinc sulphate is formed, and this being lighter than copper sulphate rises to the top of the jar and surrounds the zinc. Gravity, therefore, serves to keep the two fluids separate.

[Ill.u.s.tration: INTERIOR OF WAREHOUSE FOR TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL]

In the action of the cell, when the external circuit is closed, sulphuric acid is formed which attacks the zinc to form sulphate of zinc and to liberate hydrogen, which follows its tendency to attach itself to the copper plate. But in so doing the hydrogen necessarily pa.s.ses through the solution of sulphate of copper surrounding the copper plate. The hydrogen immediately combines with the SO_{4} radical, forming therewith sulphuric acid, and liberating metallic copper. This sulphuric acid, being lighter than the copper sulphate, rises to the surface of the zinc and attacks the zinc, thus forming more sulphate of zinc. The metallic copper so formed is deposited on the copper plate, thereby keeping the surface bright and clean. Since hydrogen is thus diverted from the copper plate, polarization does not ensue.

The zinc sulphate being colorless, while the copper sulphate is of a dark blue color, the separating line of the two liquids is easily distinguishable. This line is called the _blue line_ and care should be taken that it does not reach the zinc and cause a deposit of copper to be placed thereon.

As has been stated, these two liquids do not mix readily, but they will eventually mingle unless the action of the cell is sufficient to use up the copper sulphate as speedily as it is dissolved. Thus it will be seen that while the cell is free from polarization and local action, there is, nevertheless, a deteriorating effect if the cell is allowed to remain long on open circuit. Therefore, it should be used when a constant current is required.

Prevention of Creeping:--Much trouble has been experienced in gravity cells due to the creeping of the salts over the edge of the jar.

Frequently the upper edges of the jars are coated by dipping in hot paraffin wax in the hope of preventing this. Sometimes oil is poured on top of the fluid in the jar to prevent the creeping of the salts and the evaporation of the electrolyte. The following account of experiments performed by Mr. William Reid, of Chicago, throws light on the relative advantages of these and other methods of preventing creeping.

The experiment was made with gravity cells having 5-inch by 7-inch gla.s.s jars. Four cells were made up and operated in a rather dry, warm place, although perhaps under no more severe local conditions than would be found in most telephone exchanges.

Cell No. 1 was a plain cell as ordinarily used. Cell No. 2 had the top of the rim of the jar treated with paraffin wax by dipping the rim to about one inch in depth in melted paraffin wax. Cell No. 3 had melted paraffin wax poured over the surface of the liquid forming a seal about 3/16 inch in thickness. After cooling, a few small holes were bored through the seal to let gases escape. Cell No. 4 had a layer of heavy paraffin oil nearly 1/2 inch in thickness (about 6 oz. being used) on top of the solutions.

These cells were all run on a load of .22 to .29 amperes for 15-1/2 hours per day for thirty days, after which the following results were noted:

(_a_) The plain cell, or cell No. 1, had to have 26 ounces of water added to it to replace that which had evaporated. The creeping of zinc sulphate salts was very bad.