The Nuttall Encyclopaedia Part 384

RUNEBERG, JOHAN LUDWIG, the national poet of Finland, born at Jacobstad; educated at, and afterwards lectured in, the university of Abo; published his first volume, "Lyric Poems," in 1830; edited a bi-weekly paper; for forty years (till his death) was Reader of Roman Literature in the College of Borga; his epic idylls, "The Elk Hunters,"

"Christmas Eve," his epic "King Fjalar," &c., are the finest poems in the Swedish language; are characterised by a repose, simplicity, and artistic finish, yet have withal the warmth of national life in them (1804-1877).

RUNES, a name given to the letters of the alphabet by heathen Teutonic tribes prior to their coming under the influence of Roman civilisation; are formed almost invariably of straight lines, and scarcely exist except in inscriptions dating back to A.D. 1; found chiefly in Scandinavia, also in Britain. There are three runic alphabets (much alike), the oldest being the Gothic of 24 letters or runes. They are now believed to have first come into use among the Goths in the 6th century B.C., and to be a modified form of the old Greek alphabet introduced by traders.

RUNNIMEDE, a meadow on the right bank of the Thames, 36 m. SW. of London, where King John signed the Magna Charta, 15th June 1215.

RUPEE, a silver coin, the monetary unit of India, whose face value is 2s., but which, owing to the depreciation of silver, is now valued in outside markets at about 1s. 2d.; a lac of rupees equals 100,000.

RUPERT, PRINCE, son of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, and grandson of James I. of England; received an excellent education; took part in the Thirty Years' War, and suffered three years' imprisonment at Linz; in England, at the outbreak of the Great Rebellion, he was entrusted with a command by Charles I., and by his dash and daring greatly heartened the Royalist cause, taking an active part in all the great battles; finally surrendered to Fairfax at Oxford in 1646; but two years later took command of the Royalist s.h.i.+ps and kept up a gallant struggle till his defeat by Blake in 1651; escaped to the West Indies, where he kept up a privateering attack upon English merchantmen; came in for many honours after the Restoration, and distinguished himself in the Dutch War; the closing years of his life were quietly spent in scientific research (physical, chemical, mechanical), for which he had a distinct apt.i.tude (1619-1682).

RUPERT'S LAND, a name given by Prince Rupert to territory the drainage of which flows into Hudson Bay or Strait.

RUSH, BENJAMIN, a noted American physician and professor, born at Byberry, near Philadelphia; studied medicine at Princeton and Edinburgh; became professor of chemistry at Philadelphia in 1769; sat in Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence (1776); held important medical posts in the army; resigned, and a.s.sumed medical professors.h.i.+p in Philadelphia; won a European reputation as a lecturer, philanthropist, and medical investigator; published several treatises, and from 1799 acted as treasurer of the U.S. Mint (1745-1813).

RUSHWORTH, JOHN, historian and politician, born at Warkworth, Northumberland; although a barrister he never practised, but set himself to compile elaborate notes of proceedings at the Star Chamber and other courts, which grew into an invaluable work of 7 vols., ent.i.tled "Historical Collections"; acted as a.s.sistant-clerk to the Long Parliament; sat as a member in several Parliaments, and was for some years secretary to Fairfax and the Lord-Keeper; fell into disfavour after the Restoration, and in 1684 was arrested for debt and died in prison; is an authority whom Carlyle abuses as a Dry-as-dust (1607-1690).

RUSKIN, JOHN, art-critic and social reformer, born in London, son of an honourable and a successful wine-merchant; educated with some severity at home under the eye of his parents, and particularly his mother, who trained him well into familiarity with the Bible, and did not object to his study of "Robinson Crusoe" along with the "Pilgrim's Progress" on Sundays, while, left to his own choice he read Homer, Scott, and Byron on week days; entered Christ's Church, Oxford, as a gentleman Commoner in 1837, gained the Newdigate Prize in 1839, produced in 1843, under the name of "A Graduate of Oxford," the first volume of "Modern Painters,"

mainly in defence of the painter Turner and his art, which soon extended to five considerable volumes, and in 1849 "The Seven Lamps of Architecture," in definition of the qualities of good art in that line, under the heads of the Lamps of Sacrifice, of Truth, of Power, of Beauty, of Life, of Memory, and Obedience, pleading in particular for the Gothic style; these were followed in 1851 by "PRE-RAPHAELITISM" (q. v.), and 1851-53 by the "Stones of Venice," in further exposition of his views in the "Seven Lamps," and others on the same and kindred arts. Not till 1862 did he appear in the _role_ of social reformer, and that was by the publication of "Unto this Last," in the _Cornhill Magazine_, on the first principles of political economy, the doctrines in which were further expounded in "Munera Pulveris," "Time and Tide," and "FORS CLAVIGERA" (q. v.), the principles in which he endeavoured to give practical effect to by the Inst.i.tution of St. George's Guild, with the view of commending "the rational organisation of country life independent of that of cities." His writings are numerous, several of them originally lectures, and nearly all on matters of vital account, besides many others on subjects equally so which he began, but has had, to the grief of his admirers, to leave unfinished from failing health, among these his "Praeterita," or memories from his past life. The most popular of his recent writings is "Sesame and Lilies," with perhaps the "Crown of Wild Olive," and the most useful that of the series beginning with "Unto this Last," and culminating in "Time and Tide." He began his career as an admirer of Turner, and finished as a disciple of Thomas Carlyle, but neither slavishly nor with the surrender of his own sense of justice and truth; Justice is the G.o.ddess he wors.h.i.+ps, and except in her return to the earth as sovereign he bodes nothing but disaster to the fortunes of the race; his despair of seeing this seems to have unhinged him, and he is now in a state of fatal collapse; his contemporaries praised his style of writing, but to his disgust they did not believe a word he said; he sits sadly in these days at Brantwood, in utter apathy to everything of pa.s.sing interest, and if he thinks or speaks at all it would seem his sense of the injustice in things, and the doom it is under, is not yet utterly dead--his sun has not even yet gone down upon his wrath; the keynote of his wrath was, Men do the work of this world and rogues take the pay, selling for money what G.o.d has given for nothing, or what others have purchased by their life's blood; _b_. 1819. He died 20th January 1900.

RUSSELL, JOHN, EARL, known best as LORD JOHN RUSSELL, statesman, youngest son of the Earl of Bedford; travelled in Spain, studied at Edinburgh, entered Parliament in 1813, took up vigorously the cause of parliamentary reform and Catholic Emanc.i.p.ation, joined Earl Grey's ministry in 1830 as Paymaster of the Forces, framed and zealously advocated the Reform Bill (1832), drove Peel from office in 1835, and became, under Lord Melbourne, Home Secretary and leader of the Commons; four years later he was appointed Colonial Secretary, warmly espoused the cause of repeal of the Corn Laws, formed a Ministry on the downfall of Peel in 1846, and dealt with Irish difficulties and Chartism; resigned in 1852, and in the same year became Foreign Secretary under Aberdeen, became unpopular on account of his management of the Crimean War (1855) and conduct at the Vienna Conference; again Foreign Secretary in Palmerston's ministry of 1859, an earl in 1861, and premier a second time in 1865-66; author of various pamphlets, biographies, memoirs, &c.; was twice married; was nicknamed "Finality John" from his regarding his Reform Bill of 1832 as a final measure (1792-1878).

RUSSELL, WILLIAM, LORD, prominent politician in Charles II.'s reign, younger son of the Earl of Bedford; entered the first Restoration Parliament, became a prominent leader in the Country Party in opposition to the CABAL (q. v.) and the Popish schemes of the king; vigorously supported the Exclusion Bill to keep James, Duke of York from the throne in 1683; was charged with complicity in the Rye-house Plot, was found guilty on trumped-up evidence, and beheaded (1639-1683).

RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK, a popular writer of nautical novels, born in New York; gained his experience of sea life during eight years' service as a sailor; was a journalist on the staff of the _Daily Chronicle_ before, in 1887, he took to writing novels, which include "John Holdsworth," "The Wreck of the 'Grosvenor,'" &c.; _b_. 1844.

RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD, a celebrated war correspondent, born near Dublin; was educated at Trinity College, called to the English bar in 1850, had already acted for some years as war correspondent for the _Times_ before his famous letters descriptive of the Crimean War won him a wide celebrity; subsequently acted as correspondent during the Indian Mutiny, American Civil War, Franco-German War, &c.; accompanied the Prince of Wales to India in 1875; knighted in 1895; _b_. 1821.

RUSSELL OF KILLOWEN, CHARLES RUSSELL, LORD, a distinguished lawyer, born at Newry; educated at Trinity College, Dublin, called to the English bar in 1859, entered Parliament in 1880, became Attorney-General in 1886, receiving also a knighthood; in 1894 was elevated to the Lord Chief-Justices.h.i.+p and created a life-peer; _b_. 1832.

RUSSIA (117,562), next to the British empire the most extensive empire in the world, embracing one-sixth of the land-surface of the globe, including one-half of Europe, all Northern and a part of Central Asia; on the N. it fronts the Arctic Ocean from Sweden to the NE. extremity of Asia; its southern limit forms an irregular line from the NW. corner of the Black Sea to the Sea of j.a.pan, skirting Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, East Turkestan, and the Chinese empire; Behring Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, and the Sea of j.a.pan wash its eastern sh.o.r.es; Sweden, the Baltic, Germany, and Austria lie contiguous to it in West Europe. This solid, compact ma.s.s is thinly peopled (13 to the sq. m. over all) by some 40 different-speaking races, including, besides the dominant Russians (themselves split into three branches), Poles, Finns, Esthonians, Servians, Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Kurds, Persians, Turco-Tartars, Mongols, &c. Three-fourths of the land-surface, with one-fourth of the population, lies in Asia, and is treated under Siberia, Turkestan, Caucasia, &c. Russia in Europe, embracing FINLAND and POLAND (q. v.), is divided from Asia by the Ural Mountains and River and Caspian Sea; forms an irregular, somewhat elongated, square plain sloping down to the low and dreary coast-lands of the Baltic (W.), White Sea (N.), and Black Sea (S.); is seamed by river valleys and diversified by marshes, vast lakes (e. g. Ladoga, Onega, Peipus, and Ilmen), enormous forests, and in the N.

and centre by tablelands, the highest of which being the Valdai Hills (1100 ft.); the SE. plain is called the STEPPES (q. v.). The cold and warm winds which sweep uninterrupted from N. and S. produce extremes of temperature; the rainfall is small. Agriculture is the prevailing industry, engaging 90 per cent. of the people, although in all not more than 21 per cent. of the soil is cultivated; rye is the chief article of food for the peasantry, who comprise four-fifths of the population. The rich plains, known as the "black lands" from their deep, loamy soil, which stretch from the Carpathians to the Urals, are the most productive corn-lands in Europe, and rival in fertility the "yellow lands" of China, and like them need no manure. Timber is an important industry in the NW., and maize and the vine are cultivated in the extreme S.; minerals abound, and include gold, iron (widely distributed), copper (chiefly in middle Urals), and platinum; there are several large coal-fields and rich petroleum wells at Baku. The fisheries, particularly those of the Caspian, are the most productive in Europe. Immense numbers of horses and cattle are reared, e. g. on the Steppes. Wolves, bears, and valuable fur-bearing animals are plentiful in the N. and other parts; the reindeer is still found, also the elk. Want of ports on the Mediterranean and Atlantic hamper commerce, while the great ports in the Baltic are frozen up four or five months in the year; the southern ports are growing in importance, and wheat, timber, flax, and wool are largely exported. There is a vast inland trade, facilitated by the great rivers (Volga, Don, Dnieper, Dniester, Vistula, &c.) and by excellent railway and telegraphic communication. Among its varied races there exists a wide variety of religions--Christianity, Mohammedanism, Buddhism, Shamanism, &c.; but although some 130 sects exist, the bulk of the Russians proper belong to the Greek Church. Education is backward, more than 85 per cent. of the people being illiterate; there are eight universities. Conscription is enforced; the army is the largest in the world. Government is an absolute monarchy, save in FINLAND (q. v.); the ultimate legislative and executive power is in the hands of the czar, but there is a State Council of 60 members nominated by the czar. In the 50 departments a good deal of local self-government is enjoyed through the village communes and their public a.s.semblies, but the imperial power as represented by the police and military is felt in all parts, while governors of departments have wide and ill-defined powers which admit of abuse. The great builders of the empire, the beginnings of which are to be sought in the 9th century, have been Ivan the Great, who in the 15th century drove out the Mongols and established his capital as Moscow; Ivan the Terrible, the first of the czars, who in the 16th century pushed into Asia and down to the Black Sea; and PETER THE GREAT (q. v.). Its restless energies are still unabated, and inspire a persistently aggressive policy in the Far East.

Within recent years its literature has become popular in Europe through the powerful writings of Pushkin, Turgenief, and Tolstoi.

RUSTCHUK (27), a town in Bulgaria, on the Danube, 40 m. S. by W. of Bucharest; manufactures gold and silver ware, shoes, cloth, &c.; has a number of interesting mosques; its once important fortifications were reduced in 1877.

RUTEBEUF or RUSTEBEUF, a celebrated trouvere of the 13th century, of whom little is known save that he led a Bohemian life in Paris and was unfortunate in his marriage; his songs, satires, &c., are vigorous and full of colour, and touch a note of seriousness at times which one hardly antic.i.p.ates.

RUTHENIANS, a hardy Slavonic people, a branch of the Little Russian stock, numbering close upon 3 millions, dwelling in Galicia and Northern Hungary.

RUTHERFORD, SAMUEL, a Scottish divine, born at Nisbet, near Jedburgh; studied at Edinburgh University, became professor of Humanity, but had to resign; studied divinity, and became minister of Anworth in 1627, and was a zealous pastor and a fervid preacher; corresponded far and wide with pious friends by letters afterwards published under his name, and much esteemed by pious people; became at length professor of Divinity at St. Andrews, and represented the Scottish Church in the Westminster a.s.sembly in 1643; wrote several works, for one of which he was called to account, but had to answer a summons on his deathbed before a higher bar (1600-1661).

RUTHERGLEN (13), a town of Lanarks.h.i.+re, on the Clyde, 3 m. SE. of Glasgow, of which it is practically a suburb; a handsome bridge spans the river; has been a royal burgh since 1126, and has interesting historical a.s.sociations.

RUTHIN (3), an interesting old town of Denbighs.h.i.+re, on the Clwyd, 8 m. SE. of Denbigh.

RUTHVEN, RAID OF, a conspiracy entered into by certain Scottish n.o.bles, headed by William, first Earl of Gowrie, to seize the young king James VI., and break down the influence of his worthless favourites, Lennox and Arran; at Ruthven Castle, or Huntingtower, in Perths.h.i.+re, on 23rd August 1582, the king was captured and held for 10 months; Arran was imprisoned, and Lennox fled, to die in France; the conduct of the conspirators was applauded by the country, but after the escape of the king from St. Andrews Castle the conspirators were proclaimed guilty of treason, and Gowrie was ultimately executed.

RUTHWELL CROSS, a remarkable sandstone cross, 17 ft. high, found in Ruthwell parish, 9 m. SE. of Dumfries; dates back to the 7th century; bears runic and Latin inscriptions, notably some verses of the Saxon poem, "The Dream of the Holy Rood"; was broken down in 1642 by the Covenanters as savouring of idolatry; found and re-erected in 1802.

RUTLAND (21), the smallest county of England, bounded by Lincoln, Northampton, and Leicester; has a pleasant undulating surface, with valleys in the E., and extensive woods; is watered by the Welland; is largely pastoral, and raises fine sheep; dairy produce (especially cheese) and wheat are noted; Oakham is the capital.

RUYSDAEL, JACOB, a famous Dutch landscape-painter, born and died at Haarlem; few particulars of his life are known; his best pictures, to be seen in the galleries of Dresden, Berlin, Paris, &c., display a fine poetic spirit (1628-1682).

RUYTER, MICHAEL DE, a famous Dutch admiral, born of poor parents at Flus.h.i.+ng; from a boy of 11 served in the merchant and naval service; commanded a s.h.i.+p under Van Tromp in the war with England 1652-1654; was enn.o.bled in 1660 by the king of Denmark for services rendered in the Dano-Swedish war; for two years fought against Turkish pirates in the Mediterranean; commanded the Dutch fleet in the second war against England, and in 1667 struck terror into London by appearing and burning the s.h.i.+pping in the Thames; held his own against England and France in the war of 1672; co-operated with Spain against France; was routed and mortally wounded off the coast of Sicily; a man of sterling worth (1607-1675).

RYAN, LOCH, an arm of the sea penetrating Wigtowns.h.i.+re in a south-easterly direction, 8 m. long and from 1 to 3 broad; at its landward end is STRANRAER (q. v.); forms an excellent anchorage.

RYBINSK (20, 100 in the summer), a busy commercial town in Russia, on the Volga, 48 m. NW. of Yaroslav; connected by ca.n.a.l with St.

Petersburg; industries embrace boat-building, brewing, distilling, &c.

RYDE (11), a popular old watering-place on the NE. coast of the Isle of Wight, 4 m. SW. of Portsmouth; rises in pretty wooded terraces from the sea; has a fine promenade, park, pier, &c.

RYE (4), an interesting old port in the SE. corner of Suss.e.x, situated on rising ground flanked by two streams, 63 m. SE. from London, one of the CINQUE PORTS (q. v.); the retiral of the sea has left it now 2 m. inland; has a fine Norman and Early English church.

RYE HOUSE PLOT, an abortive conspiracy in 1683 to a.s.sa.s.sinate Charles II. of England and his brother James, Duke of York, planned by Colonel Rumsey, Lieutenant-Colonel Walcot, the "plotter" Ferguson, and other reckless adherents of the Whig party. The conspirators were to conceal themselves at a farmhouse called Rye House, near Hertford, and to waylay the royal party returning from Newmarket; the plot miscarried owing to the king leaving Newmarket sooner than was expected; the chief conspirators were executed.