Outlines of a Mechanical Theory of Storms Part 12

If there be a wave of denser ether cylindrically disposed around the vortex at the distance of Saturn, or between Saturn and Ura.n.u.s, we see why the law of densities and distances is not continuous. For, if the law of density changes, it must be owing to such a ring or wave. Inside this wave, the two forces will be inverse; but outside, one will be inverse, and the other direct: hence, there should also be a change in the law of distances. As this change does not take place until we pa.s.s Ura.n.u.s, it may be suspected that the great disparity in the density of Saturn may be more apparent than real. The density of a planet is the relation between its ma.s.s and volume or extension, no matter what the form of the body may be. From certain observations of Sir Wm.

Herschel--the t.i.tan of practical astronomers--the figure of Saturn was suspected to be that of a square figure, with the corners rounded off, so as to leave both the equatorial and polar zones flatter than pertained to a true spheroidal figure. The existence of an unbroken ring around Saturn, certainly attaches a peculiarity to this planet which prepares us to meet other departures from the usual order. And when we reflect on the small density, and rapid rotation, the formation of this ring, and the figure suspected by Sir Wm. Herschel, it is neither impossible nor improbable, that there may be a cylindrical vacant s.p.a.ce surrounding the axis of Saturn, or at least, that his solid parts may be cylindrical, and his globular form be due to elastic gases and vapors, which effectually conceal his polar openings. And also, by dilating and contracting at the poles, in consequence of inclination to the radial stream, (just as the earth's atmosphere is bulged out sufficiently to affect the barometer at certain hours every day,) give that peculiarity of form in certain positions of the planet in its...o...b..t. Justice to Sir Wm. Herschel requires that _his_ observations shall not be attributed to optical illusions. This view, however, which may be true in the case of Saturn, would be absurd when applied to the earth, as has been done within the present century. From these considerations, it is at least possible, that the density of Saturn may be very little less, or even greater than the density of Ura.n.u.s, and be in harmony with the law of distances.

It is now apparently satisfactorily determined, that Neptune is denser than Ura.n.u.s, and the law being changed, we must look for transneptunean planets at distances corresponding with the new law of arrangement. But there are other modifying causes which have an influence in fixing the precise position of equilibrium of a planet. Each planet of the system possessing rotation, is surrounded by an ethereal vortex, and each vortex has its own radial stream, the force of which in opposing the radial stream of the sun, depends on the diameter and density of the planet, on the velocity of rotation, on the inclination of its axis, and on the density of the ether at each particular vortex; but the numerical verification of the position of each planet with the forces we have mentioned, cannot be made in the present state of the question. There is one fact worthy of note, as bearing on the theory of vortices in connection with the rotation of the planets, viz.: that observation has determined that the axial rotation and sidereal revolution of the secondaries, are identical; thus showing that they are without vortices, and are motionless relative to the ether of the vortex to which they belong. We may also advert to the theory of Doctor Olbers, that the asteroidal group, are the fragments of a larger planet which once filled the vacancy between Mars and Jupiter. Although this idea is not generally received, it is gathering strength every year by the discovery of other _fragments_, whose number now amounts to twenty-six. If the idea be just, our theory offers an explanation of the great differences observable in the mean distances of these bodies, and which would otherwise form a strong objection against the hypothesis. For if these little planets be fragments, there will be differences of density according as they belonged to the central or superficial parts of the quondam planet, and their mean distances must consequently vary also.

There are some other peculiarities connecting the distances and densities, to which we shall devote a few words. In the primordial state of the system, when the nebulous ma.s.ses agglomerated into spheres, the diameter of these nebulous spheres would be determined by the relation existing between the rotation of the ma.s.s, and the gravitating force at the centre; for as long as the centrifugal force at the equator exceeded the gravitating force, there would be a continual throwing off of matter from the equator, as fast as it was brought from the poles, until a balance was produced. It is also extremely probable, (especially if the elementary components of water are as abundant in other planets as we have reason to suppose them to be on the earth,) that the condensation of the gaseous planets into liquids and solids, was effected in a _brief period of time_,[38] leaving the lighter and more elastic substances as a nebulous atmosphere around globes of semi-fluid matter, whose diameters have never been much increased by the subsequent condensation of their gaseous envelopes. The extent of these atmospheres being (in the way pointed out) determined by the rotation, their subsequent condensation has not therefore changed the original rotation of the central globe by any appreciable quant.i.ty. The present rotation of the planets, is therefore competent to determine the former diameters of the nebulous planets, _i.e._, the limit where the present central force would be balanced by the centrifugal force of rotation. If we make the calculation for the planets, and take for the unit of each planet its present diameter, we shall find that they have condensed from their original nebulous state, by a quant.i.ty dependent on the distance, from the centre of the system; and therefore on the original temperature of the nebulous ma.s.s at that particular distance. Let us make the calculation for Jupiter and the earth, and call the original nebulous planets the nucleus of the vortex. We find the Equatorial diameter of Jupiter's nucleus in equatorial diameters of Jupiter = 2.21, and the equatorial diameter of the earth's nucleus, in equatorial diameters of the earth = 6.59. Now, if we take the original temperature of the nebulous planets to be inversely, as the squares of the distances from the sun, and their volumes directly as the cubes of the diameters in the unit of each, we find that these cubes are to each other, in the inverse ratio of the squares of the planet's distances; for,

2.21 : 6.59 :: 1 : 5.2,

showing that both planets have condensed equally, allowing for the difference of temperature at the beginning. And we shall find, beginning at the sun, that the diameters of the nebulous planets, _ceteris paribus_, diminish outwards, giving for the nebulous sun a diameter of 16,000,000 miles,[39] thus indicating his original great temperature.

That the original nebulous planets did rotate in the same time as they do at present, is proved by Saturn's ring; for if we make the calculation, about twice the diameter of Saturn. Now, the diameter of the planet is about 80,000 miles, which will also be the semi-diameter of the nebulous planet; and the middle of the outer ring has also a semi-diameter of 80,000 miles; therefore, the ring is the equatorial portion of the original nebulous planet, and ought, on this theory, to rotate in the same time as Saturn. According to Sir John Herschel, Saturn rotates in 10 hours, 29 minutes, and 17 seconds, and the ring rotates in 10 hours, 29 minutes, and 17 seconds: yet this is not the periodic time of a satellite, at the distance of the middle of the ring; neither ought the rings to rotate in the same time; yet as far as observation can be trusted, both the inner and outer ring do actually rotate in the same time. The truth is, the ring rotates too fast, if we derive its centrifugal force from the a.n.a.logy of its satellites; but it is, no doubt, in equilibrium; and the effective ma.s.s of Saturn on the satellites is less than the true ma.s.s, in consequence of his radial stream being immensely increased by the additional force impressed on the ether, by the centrifugal velocity of the ring. If this be so, the ma.s.s of Saturn, derived from one of the inner satellites, will be less than the same ma.s.s derived from the great satellite, whose orbit is considerably inclined. The a.n.a.logy we have mentioned, between the diameters of the nebulous planets and their distances, does not hold good in the case of Saturn, for the reason already a.s.signed, viz.: that the nebulous planet was probably not a globe, but a cylindrical ring, vacant around the axis, as there is reason to suppose is the case at present.

And now we have to ask the question, Did the ether involved in the nebulous planets rotate in the same time? This does not necessarily follow. The ether will undoubtedly tend to move with increasing velocity to the very centre of motion, obeying the great dynamical principle when unresisted. If resisted, the law will perhaps be modified; but in this case, its motion of translation will be converted into atomic motion or heat, according to the motion lost by the resistance of atomic matter.

This question has a bearing on many geological phenomena. As regards the general effect, however, the present velocity of the ether circulating round the planets, may be considered much greater than the velocities of the planets themselves.

PERTURBATIONS DUE TO THE ETHER.

In these investigations it is necessary to bear in mind that the whole resisting power of the ether, in disturbing the planetary movements, is but small, in comparison with gravitation. We will, however, show that, in the case of the planets, there is a compensation continually made by this resistance, which leaves but a very small outstanding balance as a disturbing power. If we suppose all the planets to move in the central plane of the vortex in circular orbits, and the force of the radial stream, (or that portion which is not in accordance with the law of gravitation,) to be inversely as the square roots of the distances from the sun, it is evident, from what has been advanced, that an equilibrium could still obtain, by variations in the densities, distances and diameter of the planets. Supposing, again, that the planets still move in the same plane, but in elliptical orbits, and that they are in equilibrium at their mean distances, under the influence or action of the tangential current, the radial stream, and the density of the ether; we see that the force of the radial stream is too great at the perihelion, and too small at the aphelion. At the perihelion the planet is urged from the sun and at the aphelion towards the sun. The density and consequent momentum is also relatively too great at the perihelion, which also urges the planet from the sun, and at the aphelion, relatively too small, which urges the planet towards sun; and the law is the same in both cases, being null at the mean distance of the planet, at a maximum at the apsides; it is, consequently, as the cosine of the planet's eccentric anomaly at other distances, and is positive or negative, according as the planet's distance is above or below the mean.

At the planet's mean distance, the circular velocity of the vortex is equal to the circular velocity of the planet, and, at different distances, is inversely in the sub-duplicate ratio of those distances.

But the circular velocity of a planet in the same orbit, is in the simple ratio of the distances inversely. At the perihelion, the planet therefore moves faster than the ether of the vortex, and at the aphelion, slower; and the difference is as the square roots of the distances; but the force of resistance is as the square of the velocity, and is therefore in the simple ratio of the distances, as we have already found for the effect of the radial stream, and centrifugal momentum of the internal ether. At the perihelion this excess of tangential velocity creates a resistance, which urges the planet towards the sun, and at the aphelion, the deficiency of tangential velocity urges the planet from the sun,--the maximum effect being at the apsides of the orbit, and null at the mean distances. In other positions it is, therefore, as the cosines of the eccentric anomaly, as in the former case; but in this last case it is an addit.i.tious force at the perihelion, and an ablat.i.tious force at the aphelion, whereas the first disturbing force was an ablat.i.tious force at the perihelion, and an addit.i.tious force at the aphelion; therefore, as we must suppose the planet to be in equilibrium at its mean distance, it is in equilibrium at all distances. Hence, a planet moving in the central plane of the vortex, experiences no disturbance from the resistance of the ether.

As the eccentricities of the planetary orbits are continually changing under the influence of the law of gravitation, we must inquire whether, under these circ.u.mstances, such a change would not produce a permanent derangement by a change in the mean force of the radial stream, so as to increase or diminish the mean distance of the planet from the sun. The law of force deduced from the theory for the radial stream is as the 2.5 power of the distances inversely. But, by dividing this ratio, we may make the investigation easier; for it is equivalent to two forces, one being as the squares of the distances, and another as the square roots of the distances. For the former force, we find that in orbits having the same major axis the mean effect will be as the minor axis of the ellipse _inversely_, so that two planets moving in different orbits, but at the same mean distance, experience a less or greater amount of centripulsive force from this radial stream, according as their orbits are of less or greater eccentricity, and this in the ratio of the minor axis. On the other hand, under the influence of a force acting centripulsively in the inverse ratio of the square roots of the distances, we find the mean effect to be as the minor axis of the ellipse _directly_, so that two planets in orbits of different eccentricity, but having the same major axis, experience a different amount from the action of this radial stream, the least eccentric orbit being that which receives the greatest mean effect. By combining these two results, we get a ratio of equality; and, consequently, the action of the radial stream will be the same for the same orbit, whatever change may take place in the eccentricity, and the mean distance of the planet will be unchanged. A little consideration will also show that the effect of the centrifugal momentum due to the density of ether will also be the same by change of eccentricity; for the positive will always balance the negative effect at the greatest and least distances of the planet. The same remark applies to the effect of the tangential current, so that no change can be produced in the major axes of the planetary orbits by change of eccentricity, as an effect of the resistance of the ether.

We will now suppose a planet's...o...b..t to be inclined to the central plane of the vortex, and in this case, also, we find, that the action of the radial stream tends to increase the inclination in one quadrant as much as it diminishes it in the next quadrant, so that no change of inclination will result. But, if the inclination of the orbit be changed by planetary perturbations, the mean effect of the radial stream will also be changed, and this will tell on the major axis of the orbit, enlarging the orbit when the inclination diminishes, and contracting it when it increases. The change of inclination, however, must be referred to the central plane of the vortex. Notwithstanding the perfection of modern a.n.a.lysis, it is confessed that the recession of the moon's nodes does yet differ from the theory by its 350th part, and a similar discrepancy is found for the advance of the perigee.[40] This theory is yet far too imperfect to say that the action of the ethereal medium will account for these discrepancies; but it certainly wears a promising aspect, worthy the notice of astronomers. There are other minute discordancies between theory and observation in many astronomical phenomena, which theory _is_ competent to remove. Some of these we shall notice presently; and, it may be remarked, that it is in those minute quant.i.ties which, in astronomy, are usually attributed to errors of observation, that this theory will eventually find the surest evidence of its truth.

KEPLER'S THIRD LAW ONLY APPROXIMATELY TRUE.

But it may be asked: If there be a modifying force in astronomy derived from another source than that of gravitation, why is it that the elements of the various members of the system derived solely from gravitation should be so perfect? To this it may be answered, that although astronomers have endeavored to derive every movement in the heavens from that great principle, they have but partially succeeded.

Let us not surrender our right of examining Nature to the authority of a great name, nor call any man master, either in moral or physical science. It is well known that Kepler's law of the planetary distances and periods, is a direct consequence of the Newtonian Law of gravitation, and that the squares of the periodic times ought to be proportional to the cubes of the mean distances. These times are given accurately by the planets themselves, by the interval elapsing between two consecutive pa.s.sages of the node, and as in the case of the ancient planets we have observations for more than two thousand years past, these times are known to the fraction of the second. The determination of the distances however, depends on the astronomer, and a tyro in the science might suppose that these distances were actually measured; and so they are roughly; but the astronomer does not depend on his instruments, he trusts to _a.n.a.logy_, and the mathematical perfection of a law, which in the abstract is true; but which he does not know is rigidly exact when applied to physical phenomena. From the immense distance of the planets and the smallness of the earth, man is unable to command a base line sufficiently long, to make the horizontal parallax a sensible angle for the more distant planets; and there are difficulties of no small magnitude to contend with, with those that are the nearest.

In the occasional transit of Venus across the sun, however, he is presented with a means of measuring on an enlarged scale, from which the distance of the sun is determined; and by _a.n.a.logy_ the distance of all the planets. Even the parallax of the sun itself is only correct, by supposing that the square of the periodic time of Venus is in the same proportion to the square of the periodic time of the earth as the cube of her distance is to the cube of the earth's distance. Our next nearest planet is Mars, and observations on this planet at its opposition to the sun, invariably give a larger parallax for the sun--Venus giving 8.5776?

while Mars gives about 10?. It is true that the first is obtained under more favorable circ.u.mstances; but this does not prove the last to be incorrect. It is well known that the British Nautical Almanac contains a list of stars lying in the path of the planet Mars about opposition, (for the very purpose of obtaining a correct parallax,) that minute differences of declination may be detected by simultaneous observations in places having great differences of lat.i.tude. Yet strange to say, the result is discredited when not conformable to the parallax given by Venus. If then, we cannot trust the parallax of Mars, _a fortiori_, how can we trust the parallax of Jupiter, and say that his mean distance exactly corresponds to his periodic time? Let us suppose, for instance, that the radius vector of Jupiter fell short of that indicated by a.n.a.logy by 10,000 miles, we say that it would be extremely difficult, nay, utterly impossible, to detect it by instrumental means. Let not astronomers, therefore, be too sure that there is not a modifying cause, independent of gravitation, which they will yet have to recognize. The moon's distance is about one-fourth of a million of miles, and Neptune's 2854 millions, or in the ratio of 10,000 to 1; yet even the moon's parallax is not trusted in determining her ma.s.s, how then shall we determine the parallax of Neptune? It is therefore _possible_ that the effective action of the sun is in some small degree different, on the different planets, whether due to the action of the ether, to the similarity or dissimilarity of material elements, to the temperature of the different bodies, or to all combined, is a question yet to be considered.

As another evidence of the necessity of modifying the strict wording of the Newtonian law, it is found that the disturbing action of Jupiter on different bodies, gives different values for the ma.s.s of Jupiter. The ma.s.s deduced from Jupiter's action on his satellites, is different from that derived from the perturbations of Saturn, and this last does not correspond with that given by Juno: Vesta also gives a different ma.s.s from the comet of Encke, and both vary from the preceding values.[41]

In the a.n.a.lytical investigation of planetary disturbances, the disturbing force is usually divided into a radial and tangential force; the first changing the law of gravitation, to which law the elliptic form of the orbit is due. The radial disturbing force, therefore, being directed to or from the centre, can have no influence over the first law of Kepler, which teaches that the radius vector of each planet having the sun as the centre, describes equal areas in equal times. If the radial disturbing force be exterior to the disturbed body, it will diminish the central force, and cause a progressive motion in the aphelion point of the orbit. In the case of the moon this motion is very rapid, the apogee making an entire revolution in 3232 days. Does this, however, correspond with the law of gravitation? Sir Isaac Newton, in calculating the effect of the sun's disturbing force on the motion of the moon's apogee, candidly concludes thus: "Idoque apsis summa singulis revolutionibus progrediendo conficit 1 31' 28?. Apsis lunae est duplo velocior circiter." As there was a necessity for reconciling this stubborn fact with the theory, his followers have made up the deficiency by resorting to the tangential force, or, as Clairant proposed, by continuing the approximations to terms of a higher order, or to the square of the disturbing force.

Now, in a circular orbit, this tangential force will alternately increase and diminish the velocity of the disturbed body, without producing any permanent derangement, the same result would obtain in an elliptical orbit, if the position of the major axis were stationary. In the case of the moon, the apogee is caused to advance by the disturbing power of the radial force, and, consequently, an exact compensation is not effected: there remains a small excess of velocity which geometers have considered equivalent to a doubling of the radial force, and have thus obviated the difficulty. To those not imbued with the profound penetration of the modern a.n.a.lyst, there must ever appear a little inconsistency in this result. The major axis of a planet's...o...b..t depends solely on the velocity of the planet at a given distance from the sun, and the tangential portion of the disturbance due to the sun, and impressed upon the moon, must necessarily increase and diminish alternately the velocity of the moon, and interfere with the equable description of the areas. If, then, there be left outstanding a small excess of velocity over and above the elliptical velocity of the moon, at the end of each synodical revolution, in consequence of the motion impressed on the moon's apogee by the radial force, the _legitimate_ effect would be a small enlargement of the lunar orbit every revolution in a rapidly-increasing ratio, until the moon would at last be taken entirely away. In the great inequality of Jupiter and Saturn, this tangential force is not compensated at each revolution, in consequence of continual changes in the configuration of the two planets at their heliocentric conjunctions, with respect to the perihelion of their orbits, and the near commensurability of their periods; and the effect of the tangential force is, in this case, legitimately impressed on the major axes of the orbits. But why (we may ask) should not this also be expended on the motion of the aphelion as well as in the case of the moon? Astronomy can make no distinctions between the orbit of a planet and the orbit of a satellite. And, we might also ask, why the tangential resistance to the comet of Encke should not also produce a retrograde motion in the apsides of the orbit, instead of diminis.h.i.+ng its period?

To the honor of Newton, be it remembered, that he never resorted to an explanation of this phenomenon, which would vitiate that fundamental proposition of his theory, in which the major axis of the orbit is shown to depend on the velocity at any given distance from the focus.

Some cause, however, exists to double the motion of the apogee, and that there is an outstanding excess of orbital velocity due to the tangential force, is also true. This excess may tell in the way proposed, provided some other arrangement exists to _prevent_ a permanent dilation of the lunar orbit; and this provision may be found in the increasing density of the ether, which prevents the moon overstepping the bounds prescribed by her own density, and the force of the radial stream of the terral vortex. In the case of Jupiter and Saturn, their mutual action is much less interfered with by change of density in the ether in the enlarged or contracted orbit, and, consequently, the effect is natural. Thus, we have in the law of density of the ethereal medium a better safeguard to the stability of the dynamical balance of the system, than in the profound and beautiful Theorems of La Grange. It will, of course, occur to every one, that we are not to look for the same law in every vortex, and it will, therefore, appear as if the satellites of Jupiter, whose theory is so well known, should render apparent any deviation between their periodic times and the periodic times of the contiguous parts of the vortex, which would obtain, if the density of the ether in the Jovian vortex were not as the square roots of the distances directly. But, we have shown how there can be a balance preserved, if the tangential resistance of the vortex shall be equal and contrary at the different distances at which the satellites are placed; that is, if these two forces shall follow the same law. These are matters, however, for future investigation.

LIGHT AND HEAT.

But will not the admission of a vorticose motion of the ethereal medium, affect the aberration of light? It is well known that the question has been mooted, whether the velocity of reflected light is the same as that of direct light. The value of aberration having been considered 20?.25, from the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, while later determinations, from observations on Polaris, give 20?.45. It cannot be doubted that light, in traversing the central parts of the solar vortex, that is, having to cross the whole orbit of the earth, should pa.s.s this distance in a portion of time somewhat different to a similar distance outside the earth's...o...b..t, where the density is greater, and consequently induce an error in the aberration, determined by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. In the case of Polaris, the circ.u.mstances are more equal; still, a difference ought to be detected between the deduced aberration in summer and in winter, as, in the first case, the light pa.s.ses near the axis of the solar vortex, where (according to the theory) a change of density occurs. This is an important practical question, and the suggestion is worthy attention. Now, the question occurs, will light pa.s.s through the rarefied s.p.a.ce with greater velocity than through the denser ether beyond? From recent experiments, first inst.i.tuted by Arago, it is determined that light pa.s.ses with less velocity through water than through air; and one result of these experiments is the confirmation they give to the theory of Fresnel, that the medium which conveys the action of light partly partakes of the motion of the refracting body.

This of itself is a strong confirmation of this theory of an ethereal medium. It may also be remarked, that every test applied to the phenomenon of light, adds additional strength to the undulatory theory, at the expense of the Newtonian theory of emission. As light occupies time in traversing s.p.a.ce, it must follow from the theory that it does not come from the radiant point exactly in straight lines, inasmuch as the ether itself is in motion tangentially,--the velocity being in the sub-duplicate ratio of the distances from the sun inversely.

May not that singular phenomenon,--the projection of a star on the moon's disc, at the time of an occultation,--be due to this curvature of the path of a ray of light, by considering that the rays from the moon have less intensity, but more mechanical momentum, and consequently more power to keep a straight direction? Let us explain: we have urged that light, as well as heat, is a mechanical effect of atomic motion, propagated through an elastic medium; that, _ceteris paribus_, the product of matter by its motion is ever a constant quant.i.ty for equal s.p.a.ces throughout the universe,--in a word, that it is, and must necessarily be, a fundamental law of nature. All departures from this law are consequences of accidental arrangements, which can only be considered of temporary duration. Our knowledge of planetary matter requires the admission of differences in the density, form, and size of ultimate atoms, and, according to the above law, when the atoms are of uniform temperature or motion, the product of the matter of each by its motion, when reduced to the same s.p.a.ce, will be constant. The momentum of two different atoms, therefore, we will consider equal, for the sake of ill.u.s.tration; yet this momentum is made up of two different elements,--matter and motion. Let us exaggerate the difference, and a.s.sign a ratio of 1000 to 1. Suppose a ball of iron of 1000 lbs., resting upon a horizontal plane, should be struck by another ball of 1 lb., having a motion of 1000 feet in a second, and, in a second case, should be struck by a ball of 1000 lbs., having a velocity of 1 foot per second, the momentum of each ball is similar; but experience proves that the motion impressed on the ball at rest is not similar; the ponderous weight and slow motion is far more effective in displacing this ball, for the reason that time is essential to the distribution of the motion.

If the body to be struck be small as, for instance, a nail, a greater motion and less matter is more effective than much matter and little motion. Hence, we have a _distinction_ applicable to the difference of momentum of luminous and calorific rays. The velocity of a wave of sound through the atmosphere, is the same for the deep-toned thunder and the shrillest whistle,--being dependent on the density of the medium, and not on the source from which it emanates. So it is in the ethereal medium.

This view is in accordance with the experiments of M. Delaroche and Melloni, on the transmission of light and heat through diaphanous bodies--the more calorific rays feeling more and more the influence of thickness, showing that more motion was imparted to the particles of the diaphanous substance by the rays possessing more material momentum, and still more when the temperature of the radiating body was low, evidently a.n.a.logous to the ill.u.s.tration we have cited. Light may therefore be regarded as the effect of the vibration of atoms having little ma.s.s, and as this ma.s.s increases, the rays become more calorific, and finally the calorific effect is the only evidence of their existence; as towards the extreme red end of the spectrum they cease to be visible, owing to their inability to impart their vibrations to the optic nerve. This may also influence the law of gravitation. In this we have also an explanation of the dispersion of light. The rays proceeding from atoms of small ma.s.s having less material momentum, are the most refrangible, and those possessing greater material momentum, are the least refrangible; so that instead of presenting a difficulty in the undulatory theory of light, this dispersion is a necessary consequence of its first principles.

It is inferred from the experiments cited, and the facts ascertained by them, viz.: that the velocity of light in water is less than its velocity in air; that the density of the ether is greater in the first case; but this by no means follows. We have advocated the idea, that the ethereal medium is less dense within a refracting body than without. We regard it as a fundamental principle. Taking the free ether of heaven; the vibrations in the denser ether will no doubt be slowest; but within a refracting body we must consider there is motion lost, or _light absorbed_, and the time of the transmission is thus increased.

There has been a phenomenon observed in transits of Mercury and Venus across the sun, of which no explanation has been rendered by astronomers. When these planets are visible on the solar disc, they are seen surrounded by rings, as if the light was intercepted and increased alternately. This is no doubt due to a small effect of interference, caused by change of velocity in pa.s.sing through the rarefied nucleus of these planetary vortices, near the body of the planet, and through the denser ether beyond, acting first as a concave, and secondly as a convex refracting body; always considering that the ray will deviate _towards_ the side of least insistence, and thus interfere.

That heat is simply atomic motion, and altogether mechanical, is a doctrine which ought never to have been questioned. The interest excited by the bold experiments of Ericson, has caused the scientific to _suspect_, that heat can be converted into motion, and motion into heat--a fact which the author has considered too palpable to deny for the last twenty years. He has ever regarded matter and motion as the two great principles of nature, ever inseparable, yet variously combined; and that without these two elements, we could have no conception of anything existing.

It may be thought by some, who are afraid to follow truth up the rugged precipices of the hill of knowledge, that this theory of an interplanetary plenum leads to materialism; forgetting, that He who made the world, formed it of matter, and p.r.o.nounced it "very good." We may consider ethereal matter, in one sense, _purer_ than planetary matter, because unaffected by chemical laws. Whether still purer matter exists, it is not for us to aver or deny. The Scriptures teach us that "there is a natural body and there is a spiritual body." Beyond this we know nothing. We, however, believe that the _invisible_ world of matter, can only be comprehended by the indications of that which is visible; yet while humbly endeavoring to connect by one common tie, the various phenomena of matter and motion, we protest against those doctrines which teach the eternal duration of the present order of things, as being incompatible with the a.n.a.logies of the past, as well as with the revelations of the future.

FOOTNOTES:

[35] Silliman's Journal, vol x.x.xv., page 283.

[36] The real diameter of the earth in that lat.i.tude, whose sine is one-third, is a little greater than this; but the true mean is more favorable for the Newtonian law.

[37] This is, perhaps, the nearest ratio of the densities and distances.

[38] This is an important consideration, as bearing on the geology of the earth.

[39] It is not as likely that the condensation of the sun was so sudden as that of the planets, and therefore in this case this distance is only approximate.

[40] Mechanique Celeste. Theory of the Moon.

[41] Mechanique Celeste. Ma.s.ses of the planets.

SECTION FIFTH.

COMETARY PHENOMENA.

The planetary arrangements of the solar system are all _a priori_ indications of the theory of vortices, not only by the uniform direction of the motions, the circular orbits in which these motions are performed, the near coincidence of the planes of these orbits, and the uniform direction of the rotation of the planets themselves; but, also, by the law of densities and distances, which we have already attempted to explain. In the motions of comets we find no such agreement. These bodies move in planes at all possible inclinations in orbits extremely eccentrical and without any general direction--as many moving contrary to the direction of the planets as in the opposite direction; and when we consider their great volume, and their want of ma.s.s, it appears, at first sight, that comets do present a serious objection to the theory.

We shall point out, however, a number of _facts_ which tend to invalidate this objection, and which will ultimately give the preponderance to the opposite argument.

Every fact indicative of the nature of comets proves that the nuclei are ma.s.ses of material gases, similar, perhaps (at least in the case of the short-period comets), to the elementary gases of our own planet, and, consequently, these ma.s.ses must be but small. In the nascent state of the system, the radial stream of the vortex would operate as a fan, purging the planetary materials of the least ponderable atoms, and, as it were, separating the wheat from the chaff. It is thus we conceive that the average atomic density of each planet has been first determined by the radial stream, and, subsequently, that the solidification of the nebulous planets has, by their atomic density, a.s.signed to each its position in the system, from the consequent relation which it established between the density of the ether within the planet, and the density of the ether external to it, so that, according to this view, a single isolated atom of the same density as the mean atomic density of the earth could (_ceteris paribus_) revolve in an orbit at the distance of the earth, and in the same periodic time. This, however, is only advanced by way of ill.u.s.tration.

The expulsive force of the radial stream would thus drive off this cometary dust to distances in some inverse ratio of the density of the atoms; but, a limit would ultimately be reached, when gravitation would be relatively the strongest--the last force diminis.h.i.+ng only as the squares of the distances, and the first diminis.h.i.+ng in the compound ratio of the squares and the square roots of the distances. At the extreme verge of the system, this cometary matter would acc.u.mulate, and, by acc.u.mulation, would still further gather up the scattered atoms--the sweepings of the inner s.p.a.ce--and, in this condensed form, would again visit the sun in an extremely elongated ellipse. It does not, however, follow, that all comets are composed of such unsubstantial materials.

There may be comets moving in parabolas, or even in hyperbolas--bodies which may have been acc.u.mulating for ages in the unknown regions of s.p.a.ce, far removed from the sun and stars, drifting on the mighty currents of the great ethereal ocean, and thus brought within the sphere of the sun's attraction; and these bodies may have no a.n.a.logy to the periodical comets of our system, which last are those with which we are more immediately concerned.

The periodical comets known are clearly arranged into two distinct cla.s.ses--one having a mean distance between Saturn and Ura.n.u.s, with a period of about seventy-five years, and another cla.s.s, whose mean distance a.s.signs their position between the smaller planets and Jupiter, having periods of about six years. These last may be considered the siftings of the smaller planets, and the first the refuse of the Saturnian system. In this light we may look for comets having a mean distance corresponding to the intervals of the planets, rather than to the distances of the planets themselves. One remarkable fact, however, to be observed in these bodies is, that all their motions are in the same direction as the planets, and, with one exception, there is no periodical comet positively known whose motion is retrograde.