The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir Part 6

~Measures taken to protect agriculturists.~--In a country owned so largely by small farmers, the first task of the Government must be to secure their welfare and contentment. Before plague laid its grasp on the rich central districts it was feared that they were becoming congested, and the ca.n.a.l colonization schemes referred to in a later chapter were largely designed to relieve them. But there is a much subtler foe to whose insidious attacks small owners are liable, the temptation to abuse their credit till their acres are loaded with mortgages and finally lost. So threatening had this economic disease for years appeared that at last in 1900 the Panjab Alienation of Land Act was pa.s.sed, which forbade sales by people of agricultural tribes to other cla.s.ses without the sanction of the district officer, and greatly restricted the power of mortgaging. The same restrictions are in force in the N.W.F.

Province. The Act is popular with those for whose benefit it was devised, and has effected its object of checking land alienation and probably to some extent discouraged extravagance. It has been supplemented by a still more valuable measure, the Co-operative Credit Societies Act. The growth of these societies in the Panjab has been very remarkable, a notable contrast to the very slow advance of the similar movement in England. In 1913-14 there were 3261 village banks with 155,250 members and a working capital of 133-3/4 _lakhs_ or 885,149, besides 38 central banks with a capital of 42-3/4 _lakhs_ or about 285,000. Village banks held deposits amounting to nearly 37 _lakhs_, more than half of which was received from non-members, and lent out 71-1/2 _lakhs_ in the year to their members.

~Tribal Composition.~--Table I based on the Census returns shows the percentages of the total population belonging to the chief tribes. The cla.s.sification into "land-holding, etc." is a rough one.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son).]

~Jats.~--The Panjab is _par excellence_ the home of the Jats. Everywhere in the plains, except in the extreme north-west corner of the province, they form a large element in the population. In the east they are Hindus, in the centre Sikhs and Muhammadans, and in the west Muhammadans. The Jat is a typical son of the soil, strong and st.u.r.dy, hardworking and brave, a fine soldier and an excellent farmer, but slow-witted and grasping. The Sikh Jat finds an honourable outlet for his overflowing energy in the army and in the service of the Crown beyond the bounds of India. When he misses that he sometimes takes to dacoity. Unfortunately he is often given to strong drink, and, when his pa.s.sions or his greed are aroused, can be exceedingly brutal. Jat in the Western Panjab is applied to a large number of tribes, whose ethnical affinities are somewhat dubious.

~Rajputs.~--Rajputs are found in considerable numbers all over the province except in a few of the western and south-western districts. As farmers they are much hampered by caste rules which forbid the employment of their women in the fields, and the prohibition of widow remarriage is a severe handicap. They are generally cla.s.sed as poor cultivators, and this is usually, but by no means universally, a true description. The Dogra Rajputs of the low hills are good soldiers. They are numerous in Kangra and in the Jammu province of Kashmir.

~Brahmans.~--The Brahmans of the eastern plains and north-eastern hills are mostly agriculturists, and the Muhial Brahman of the north-western districts is a landowner and a soldier. In the hills the Brahman is often a shopkeeper. The priestly Brahman is found everywhere, but his spiritual authority has always been far less in the Panjab than in most parts of India.

~Biluches.~--When the frontier was separated off the Biluch district of Dera Ghazi Khan with its strong tribal organization under chiefs or _tumandars_ was left in the Panjab. The Biluches are a frank, manly, truthful race, free from fanaticism and ready as a rule to follow their chiefs. They are fine hors.e.m.e.n. Unfortunately it is difficult to get them to enlist.

~Pathans.~--Both politically and numerically the Pathans are the predominant tribe in the N.W.F. Province, and are of importance in parts of the Panjab districts of Attock and Mianwali. The Pathan is a democrat and often a fanatic, more under the influence of _mullahs_ than of the _maliks_ or headmen of his tribe. He has not the frank straightforward nature of the Biluch, is untiring in pursuit of revenge, and is not free from cruelty. But, when he has eaten the _Sarkar's_ salt, he is a very brave and das.h.i.+ng soldier, and he is a faithful host to anyone whom he has admitted under his roof.

~Awans.~--The home of the Awan in the Panjab is the Salt Range and the parts of Attock and Mianwali, lying to the north of it, and this tract of country is known as the Aw.a.n.kari. In the N.W.F. Province they are, after the Pathans, by far the largest tribe, and are specially numerous in Peshawar and Hazara.

~Shekhs.~--Of the Shekhs about half are Kures.h.i.+s, Sadikis, and Ansaris of foreign origin and high social standing. The rest are new converts to Islam, often of the sweeper caste originally.

~Saiyyids.~--Saiyyids are unsatisfactory landowners, and are kept going by the offerings of their followers. They are mostly s.h.i.+as. It is not necessary to believe that they are all descended from the Prophet's son-in-law, Ali. A native proverb with pardonable exaggeration says: "The first year I was a weaver (Julaha), the next year a Shekh. This year, if prices rise, I shall be a Saiyyid."

~Trading Castes.~--Aroras are the traders of the S.W. Panjab and of the N.W.F. Province. They share the Central Panjab with the Khatris, who predominate in the north-western districts. The Khatri of the Rawalpindi division is often a landowner and a first-cla.s.s fighting man. Some of our strongest Indian civil officials have been Aroras. In the Delhi division the place of the Arora and Khatri is taken by the Bania, and in Kangra by the Sud or the Brahman. Khojas and Parachas are Muhammadan traders.

~Artizans and Menials.~--Among artizans and menials Sunars (goldsmiths), Rajes (masons), Lohars (blacksmiths), and Tarkhans (carpenters) take the first rank.

~Impure Castes.~--The vast majority of the impure castes, the "untouchables" of the Hindu religion, are scavengers and workers in leather. The sweeper who embraces Islam becomes a Musalli. The Sikh Mazhbis, who are the descendants of sweeper converts, have done excellent service in our Pioneer regiments. The Hindu of the Panjab in his avoidance of "untouchables" has never gone to the absurd lengths of the high caste Madrasi, and the tendency is towards a relaxation of existing restrictions.

~Mendicants.~--Men of religion living on charity, wandering _fakirs_, are common sights, and beggars are met with in the cities, who sometimes exhibit their deformities with unnecessary insistence.

~Kashmiris.~--According to the census return the number of Kashmiri Musulmans, who make up 60 p.c. of the inhabitants of the Jhelam valley, was 765,442. They are no doubt mostly descendants of various Hindu castes, perhaps in the main of Hill Brahmans, but Islam has wiped out all tribal distinctions. Sir Walter Lawrence wrote of them: "The Kashmiri is unchanged in spite of the splendid Moghal, the brutal Afghan, and the bully Sikh. Warriors and statesmen came and went; but there was no egress, and no wish ... in normal times to leave their homes. The outside world was far, and from all accounts inferior to the pleasant valley.... So the Kashmiris lived their self-centred life, conceited, clever, and conservative."

The Hindu Kashmiri Pandits numbered 55,276.

~Tribes of Jammu.~--Agricultural Brahmans are numerous in the Jammu province. Thakkars and Meghs are important elements of the population of the outer hills. The former are no doubt by origin Rajputs, but they have cast off many Rajput customs. The Meghs are engaged in weaving and agriculture, and are regarded as more or less impure by the higher castes.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 32. Blind Beggar.]

~Gujars.~--Gujars in the Maharaja's territories are almost always graziers. In 1911 they numbered 328,003.

~Dard Tribes of Astor and Gilgit.~--The people of Astor and Gilgit are Dards speaking s.h.i.+na and professing Islam. Sir Aurel Stein wrote of them: "The Dard race which inhabits the valleys N. of (the Inner Himalaya) as far as the Hindu Kush is separated from the Kashmiri population by language as well as by physical characteristics.... There is little in the Dard to enlist the sympathies of the casual observer.

He lacks the intelligence, humour, and fine physique of the Kashmiri, and, though undoubtedly far braver than the latter, has none of the independent spirit and manly bearing which draw us towards the Pathan despite all his failings. But I can never see a Dard without thinking of the thousands of years of struggle they have carried on with the harsh climate and the barren soil of their mountains[3]."

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 33. Dards.]

~Kanjutis.~--The origin of the Kanjutis of Hunza is uncertain, and so are the relations.h.i.+ps of their language.

~Mongoloid Population of Ladakh.~--The population of Ladakh and Baltistan is Mongoloid, but the Baltis (72,439) have accepted Islam and polygamy, while the Ladakhis have adhered to Buddhism and polyandry.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 34. Map showing races.]

~Ethnological theories.~--In _The People of India_ the late Sir Herbert Risley maintained that the inhabitants of Rajputana, nearly the whole of the Panjab, and a large part of Kashmir, whatever their caste or social status, belonged with few exceptions to a single racial type, which he called Indo-Aryan. The Biluches of Dera Ghazi Khan and the Pathans of the N.W.F. Province formed part of another group which he called Turko-Iranian. The people of a strip of territory on the west of the Jamna he held to be of the same type as the bulk of the inhabitants of the United Provinces, and this type he called Aryo-Dravidian. Finally the races occupying the hills in the north-east and the adjoining part of Kashmir were of Mongol extraction, a fact which no one will dispute.

Of the Indo-Aryan type Sir Herbert Risley wrote: "The stature is mostly tall, complexion fair, eyes dark, hair on face plentiful, head long, nose narrow and prominent, but not specially long." He believed that the Panjab was occupied by Aryans, who came into the country from the west or north-west with their wives and children, and had no need to contract marriages with the earlier inhabitants. The Aryo-Dravidians of the United Provinces resulted from a second invasion or invasions, in which the Aryan warriors came alone and had to intermarry with the daughters of the land, belonging to the race which forms the staple of the population of Central India and Madras. This theory was based on measurements of heads and noses, and it seems probable that deductions drawn from these physical characters are of more value than any evidence based on the use of a common speech. But it is hard to reconcile the theory with the facts of history even in the imperfect shape in which they have come down to us, or to believe that Sakas, Yuechi, and White Huns (see historical section) have left no traces of their blood in the province. If such there are, they may perhaps be found in some of the tribes on both sides of the Salt Range, such as Gakkhars, Janjuas, Awans Tiwanas, Ghebas, and Johdras, who are fine hors.e.m.e.n and expert tent-peggers, not "tall heavy men without any natural apt.i.tude for horsemans.h.i.+p," as Sir Herbert Risley described his typical Panjabi (p.

59 of his book).

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages.]

~Languages.~--In the area dealt with in this book no less than eleven languages are spoken, and the dialects are very numerous. It is only possible to tabulate the languages and indicate on the map the localities in which they are spoken. For the Panjab the figures of the recent census are:

A 1. Tibeto-Chinese 41,607

B. Aryan: (_a_) Iranian: 2. Pashtu 67,174 3. Biluchi 70,675 4. Kohistani 26

(_b_) Indian: 5. Kashmiri 7,190 6. Pahari 993,363 7. Lahndi 4,253,566 8. Sindhi 24 9. Panjabi 14,111,215 10. Western Hindi 3,826,467 11. Rajasthani 725,850

The eastern part of the Indus valley in Kashmir forming the provinces of Ladakh and Baltistan is occupied by a Mongol population speaking Tibeto-Chinese dialects. Kashmiri is the language of Kashmir Proper, and various dialects of the s.h.i.+na-Khowar group comprehensively described as Kohistani are spoken in Astor, Gilgit, and Chilas, and to the west of Kashmir territory in Chitral and the Kohistan or mountainous country at the top of the Swat river valley. Though Kashmiri and the s.h.i.+na-Khowar tongues belong to the Aryan group, their basis is supposed to be non-Sanskritic, and it is held that there is a strong non-Sanskritic or Pisacha element also in Lahndi or western Panjabi, which is also the prevailing speech in the Hazara and Dera Ismail Khan districts of the N.W.F. Province, and is spoken in part of the Jammu province of Kashmir.

Pashtu is the common language in Peshawar, Kohat, and Bannu, and is spoken on the western frontiers of Hazara and Dera Ismail Khan, and in the independent tribal territory in the west between the districts of the N.W.F. Province and the Durand Line and immediately adjoining the Peshawar district on the north. Rajasthani is a collective name for the dialects of Rajputana, which overflow into the Panjab, occupying a strip along the southern frontier from Bahawalpur to Gurgaon. The infiltration of English words and phrases into the languages of the province is a useful process and as inevitable as was the enrichment of the old English speech by Norman-French. But for the present the results are apt to sound grotesque, when the traveller, who expects a train to start at the appointed time, is told: "_tren late hai, lekin singal down hogaya_" (the train is late, but the signal has been lowered), or the criticism is pa.s.sed on a popular officer: "_bahut affable hai, lekin hand shake nahin karta_" (very affable, but doesn't shake hands).

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 3: _Sand Buried Ruins Of Khotan_, pp. 14-15.]

CHAPTER X

THE PEOPLE (_continued_): RELIGIONS

~Religions in N.W.F. Province.~--In the N.W.F. Province an overwhelming majority of the population professes Islam. In 1911 there were 2,039,994 Musalmans as compared with 119,942 Hindus, 30,345 Sikhs, and 6585 Christians.

~Religions in Kashmir.~--In Kashmir the preponderance of Muhammadans is not so overwhelming. The figures are:

Muhammadans 2,398,320 Hindus 690,390 Buddhists 36,512 Sikhs 31,553

The Hindus belong mostly to the Jammu province, where nearly half of the population professes that faith. The people of Kashmir, Baltistan, Astor and Gilgit, Chilas and Hunza Nagar, are Musalmans. The Ladakhis are Buddhists.

~Religions in Panjab.~--The distribution by religions of the population of the Panjab and its native States in 1911 was:

Muhammadans 12,275,477 or 51 p.c.

Hindus 8,773,621 or 36 p.c.

Sikhs 2,883,729 or 12 p.c.

Others, chiefly Christian (199,751) 254,923 or 1 p.c.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions.]

The strength of the Muhammadans is in the districts west of the Bias and the Sutlej below its junction with the Bias. 83 p.c. of the subjects of the Nawab of Bahawalpur are also Muhammadans. In all this western region there are few Hindus apart from the shopkeepers and traders. On the other hand the hill country in the north-east is purely Hindu, except on the borders of Tibet, where the scanty population professes Buddhism.

While Hinduism is the predominant faith in the south-east, quite a fourth of the people there are Musalmans. Sikhs nowhere form a majority.