Principles of Mining Part 2

Positive Ore Ore exposed on four sides in blocks of a size Ore Developed / variously prescribed.

Ore Blocked Out Ore exposed on three sides within reasonable distance of each other.

Probable Ore Ore Developing / Ore exposed on two sides.

Possible Ore The whole or a part of the ore below the Ore Expectant / lowest level or beyond the range of vision.

No two of these parallel expressions mean quite the same thing; each more or less overlies into another cla.s.s, and in fact none of them is based upon a logical footing for such a cla.s.sification.

For example, values can be a.s.sumed to penetrate some distance from every sampled face, even if it be only ten feet, so that ore exposed on one side will show some "positive" or "developed" ore which, on the lines laid down above, might be "probable" or even "possible"

ore. Likewise, ore may be "fully developed" or "blocked out" so far as it is necessary for stoping purposes with modern wide intervals between levels, and still be in blocks too large to warrant an a.s.sumption of continuity of values to their centers (Fig. 1). As to the third cla.s.s of "possible" ore, it conveys an impression of tangibility to a nebulous hazard, and should never be used in connection with positive tonnages. This part of the mine's value comes under extension of the deposit a long distance beyond openings, which is a speculation and cannot be defined in absolute tons without exhaustive explanation of the risks attached, in which case any phrase intended to shorten description is likely to be misleading.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1.--Longitudinal section of a mine, showing cla.s.sification of the exposed ore. Scale, 400 feet = 1 inch.]

Therefore empirical expressions in terms of development openings cannot be made to cover a geologic factor such as the distribution of metals through a rock ma.s.s. The only logical basis of ore cla.s.sification for estimation purposes is one which is founded on the chances of the values penetrating from the surface of the exposures for each particular mine. Ore that may be calculated upon to a certainty is that which, taking into consideration the character of the deposit, can be said to be so sufficiently surrounded by sampled faces that the distance into the ma.s.s to which values are a.s.sumed to extend is reduced to a minimum risk. Ore so far removed from the sampled face as to leave some doubt, yet affording great reason for expectation of continuity, is "probable" ore.

The third cla.s.s of ore mentioned, which is that depending upon extension of the deposit and in which, as said above, there is great risk, should be treated separately as the speculative value of the mine. Some expressions are desirable for these cla.s.sifications, and the writer's own preference is for the following, with a definition based upon the controlling factor itself.

They are:--

Proved Ore Ore where there is practically no risk of failure of continuity.

Probable Ore Ore where there is some risk, yet warrantable justification for a.s.sumption of continuity.

Prospective Ore Ore which cannot be included in the above cla.s.ses, nor definitely known or stated in any terms of tonnage.

What extent of openings, and therefore of sample faces, is required for the ore to be called "proved" varies naturally with the type of deposit,--in fact with each mine. In a general way, a fair rule in gold quartz veins below influence of secondary alteration is that no point in the block shall be over fifty feet from the points sampled. In limestone or andesite replacements, as by gold or lead or copper, the radius must be less. In defined lead and copper lodes, or in large lenticular bodies such as the Tennessee copper mines, the radius may often be considerably greater,--say one hundred feet. In gold deposits of such extraordinary regularity of values as the Wit.w.a.tersrand bankets, it can well be two hundred or two hundred and fifty feet.

"Probable ore" should be ore which entails continuity of values through a greater distance than the above, and such distance must depend upon the collateral evidence from the character of the deposit, the position of openings, etc.

Ore beyond the range of the "probable" zone is dependent upon the extension of the deposit beyond the realm of development and will be discussed separately.

Although the expression "ore in sight" may be deprecated, owing to its abuse, some general term to cover both "positive" and "probable"

ore is desirable; and where a general term is required, it is the intention herein to hold to the phrase "ore in sight" under the limitations specified.

CHAPTER III.

Mine Valuation (_Continued_).

PROSPECTIVE VALUE.[*] EXTENSION IN DEPTH; ORIGIN AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTER OF THE DEPOSIT; SECONDARY ENRICHMENT; DEVELOPMENT IN NEIGHBORING MINES; DEPTH OF EXHAUSTION.

[Footnote *: The term "extension in depth" is preferred by many to the phrase "prospective value." The former is not entirely satisfactory, as it has a more specific than general application.

It is, however, a current miner's phrase, and is more expressive.

In this discussion "extension in depth" is used synonymously, and it may be taken to include not alone the downward prolongation of the ore below workings, but also the occasional cases of lateral extension beyond the range of development work. The commonest instance is continuance below the bottom level. In any event, to the majority of cases of different extension the same reasoning applies.]

It is a knotty problem to value the extension of a deposit beyond a short distance from the last opening. A short distance beyond it is "proved ore," and for a further short distance is "probable ore." Mines are very seldom priced at a sum so moderate as that represented by the profit to be won from the ore in sight, and what value should be a.s.signed to this unknown portion of the deposit admits of no certainty. No engineer can approach the prospective value of a mine with optimism, yet the mining industry would be non-existent to-day were it approached with pessimism. Any value a.s.sessed must be a matter of judgment, and this judgment based on geological evidence. Geology is not a mathematical science, and to attach a money equivalence to forecasts based on such evidence is the most difficult task set for the mining engineer. It is here that his view of geology must differ from that of his financially more irresponsible brother in the science. The geologist, contributing to human knowledge in general, finds his most valuable field in the examination of mines largely exhausted. The engineer's most valuable work arises from his ability to antic.i.p.ate in the youth of the mine the symptoms of its old age. The work of our geologic friends is, however, the very foundation on which we lay our forecasts.

Geologists have, as the result of long observation, propounded for us certain hypotheses which, while still hypotheses, have proved to account so widely for our underground experience that no engineer can afford to lose sight of them. Although there is a lack of safety in fixed theories as to ore deposition, and although such conclusions cannot be translated into feet and metal value, they are nevertheless useful weights on the scale where probabilities are to be weighed.

A method in vogue with many engineers is, where the bottom level is good, to a.s.sume the value of the extension in depth as a sum proportioned to the profit in sight, and thus evade the use of geological evidence. The addition of various percentages to the profit in sight has been used by engineers, and proposed in technical publications, as varying from 25 to 50%. That is, they roughly a.s.sess the extension in depth to be worth one-fifth to one-third of the whole value of an equipped mine. While experience may have sometimes demonstrated this to be a practical method, it certainly has little foundation in either science or logic, and the writer's experience is that such estimates are untrue in practice. The quant.i.ty of ore which may be in sight is largely the result of managerial policy. A small mill on a large mine, under rapid development, will result in extensive ore-reserves, while a large mill eating away rapidly on the same mine under the same scale of development would leave small reserves. On the above scheme of valuation the extension in depth would be worth very different sums, even when the deepest level might be at the same horizon in both cases. Moreover, no mine starts at the surface with a large amount of ore in sight.

Yet as a general rule this is the period when its extension is most valuable, for when the deposit is exhausted to 2000 feet, it is not likely to have such extension in depth as when opened one hundred feet, no matter what the ore-reserves may be. Further, such bases of valuation fail to take into account the widely varying geologic character of different mines, and they disregard any collateral evidence either of continuity from neighboring development, or from experience in the district. Logically, the prospective value can be simply a factor of how _far_ the ore in the individual mine may be expected to extend, and not a factor of the remnant of ore that may still be unworked above the lowest level.

An estimation of the chances of this extension should be based solely on the local factors which bear on such extension, and these are almost wholly dependent upon the character of the deposit.

These various geological factors from a mining engineer's point of view are:--

1. The origin and structural character of the ore-deposit.

2. The position of openings in relation to secondary alteration.

3. The size of the deposit.

4. The depth to which the mine has already been exhausted.

5. The general experience of the district for continuity and the development of adjoining mines.

THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTER OF THE DEPOSIT.--In a general way, the ore-deposits of the order under discussion originate primarily through the deposition of metals from gases or solutions circulating along avenues in the earth's crust.[*] The original source of metals is a matter of great disagreement, and does not much concern the miner. To him, however, the origin and character of the avenue of circulation, the enclosing rock, the influence of the rocks on the solution, and of the solutions on the rocks, have a great bearing on the probable continuity of the volume and value of the ore.

[Footnote *: The cla.s.s of magmatic segregations is omitted, as not being of sufficiently frequent occurrence in payable mines to warrant troubling with it here.]

All ore-deposits vary in value and, in the miner's view, only those portions above the pay limit are ore-bodies, or ore-shoots. The localization of values into such pay areas in an ore-deposit are apparently influenced by:

1. The distribution of the open s.p.a.ces created by structural movement, fissuring, or folding as at Bendigo.

2. The intersection of other fractures which, by mingling of solutions from different sources, provided precipitating conditions, as shown by enrichments at cross-veins.

3. The influence of the enclosing rocks by:-- (a) Their solubility, and therefore susceptibility to replacement.

(b) Their influence as a precipitating agent on solutions.

(c) Their influence as a source of metal itself.

(d) Their texture, in its influence on the character of the fracture. In h.o.m.ogeneous rocks the tendency is to open clean-cut fissures; in friable rocks, zones of brecciation; in slates or schistose rocks, linked lenticular open s.p.a.ces;--these influences exhibiting themselves in miner's terms respectively in "well-defined fissure veins,"

"lodes," and "lenses."

(e) The physical character of the rock ma.s.s and the dynamic forces brought to bear upon it. This is a difficult study into the physics of stress in cases of fracturing, but its local application has not been without results of an important order.

4. Secondary alteration near the surface, more fully discussed later.

It is evident enough that the whole structure of the deposit is a necessary study, and even a digest of the subject is not to be compressed into a few paragraphs.

From the point of view of continuity of values, ore-deposits may be roughly divided into three cla.s.ses. They are:--

1. Deposits of the infiltration type in porous beds, such as Lake Superior copper conglomerates and African gold bankets.

2. Deposits of the fissure vein type, such as California quartz veins.

3. Replacement or impregnation deposits on the lines of fissuring or otherwise.

In a general way, the uniformity of conditions of deposition in the first cla.s.s has resulted in the most satisfactory continuity of ore and of its metal contents. In the second, depending much upon the profundity of the earth movements involved, there is laterally and vertically a reasonable basis for expectation of continuity but through much less distance than in the first cla.s.s.

The third cla.s.s of deposits exhibits widely different phenomena as to continuity and no generalization is of any value. In gold deposits of this type in West Australia, Colorado, and Nevada, continuity far beyond a sampled face must be received with the greatest skepticism. Much the same may be said of most copper replacements in limestone. On the other hand the most phenomenal regularity of values have been shown in certain Utah and Arizona copper mines, the result of secondary infiltration in porphyritic gangues. The Mississippi Valley lead and zinc deposits, while irregular in detail, show remarkable continuity by way of reoccurrence over wide areas. The estimation of the prospective value of mines where continuity of production is dependent on reoccurrence of ore-bodies somewhat proportional to the area, such as these Mississippi deposits or to some extent as in Cobalt silver veins, is an interesting study, but one that offers little field for generalization.

THE POSITION OF THE OPENINGS IN RELATION TO SECONDARY ALTERATION.--The profound alteration of the upper section of ore-deposits by oxidation due to the action of descending surface waters, and their a.s.sociated chemical agencies, has been generally recognized for a great many years. Only recently, however, has it been appreciated that this secondary alteration extends into the sulphide zone as well. The bearing of the secondary alteration, both in the oxidized and upper sulphide zones, is of the most sweeping economic character. In considering extension of values in depth, it demands the most rigorous investigation. Not only does the metallurgical character of the ores change with oxidation, but the complex reactions due to descending surface waters cause leaching and a migration of metals from one horizon to another lower down, and also in many cases a redistribution of their sequence in the upper zones of the deposit.

The effect of these agencies has been so great in many cases as to entirely alter the character of the mine and extension in depth has necessitated a complete reequipment. For instance, the Mt.

Morgan gold mine, Queensland, has now become a copper mine; the copper mines at b.u.t.te were formerly silver mines; Leadville has become largely a zinc producer instead of lead.

From this alteration aspect ore-deposits may be considered to have four horizons:--

1. The zone near the outcrop, where the dominating feature is oxidation and leaching of the soluble minerals.

2. A lower horizon, still in the zone of oxidation, where the predominant feature is the deposition of metals as native, oxides, and carbonates.

3. The upper horizon of the sulphide zone, where the special feature is the enrichment due to secondary deposition as sulphides.

4. The region below these zones of secondary alteration, where the deposit is in its primary state.