Early European History Part 124

As Lord Protector in name, though a king in fact, Cromwell ruled England for five years. He got along with Parliament no better than the Stuarts had done, but his successful conduct of foreign affairs gave England an importance in the councils of Europe which it had not enjoyed since the time of Elizabeth. Cromwell died in 1658 A.D. Two years later the nation, weary of military rule, restored Charles II to the throne of his ancestors.

THE PURITAN REVOLUTION

It seemed, indeed, as if the Puritan Revolution had been a complete failure. But this was hardly true. The revolution arrested the growth of absolutism in England. It created among Englishmen a lasting hostility to absolute power, whether exercised by King, Parliament, Protector, or army.

And, furthermore, it sent forth into the world ideas of political liberty, which, during the eighteenth century, helped to produce the American and French revolutions.

248. THE RESTORATION AND THE "GLORIOUS REVOLUTION," 1660-1689 A.D.

REIGN OF CHARLES II, 1660-1685 A.D.

Charles II, on mounting the throne, pledged himself to maintain Magna Carta, the Pet.i.tion of Right, and other statutes limiting the royal power.

The people of England wished to be governed by the king, but they also wished that the king should govern by the advice of Parliament. Charles, less obstinate and more astute than his father, recognized this fact, and, when a conflict threatened with his ministers or Parliament, always avoided it by timely concessions. Whatever happened, he used to say, he was resolved "never to set on his travels again." Charles's charm of manner, wit, and genial humor made him a popular monarch, in spite of his grave faults of character. One of his own courtiers well described him as a king who "never said a foolish thing and never did a wise one."

REACTION AGAINST PURITANISM

The period of the Restoration was characterized by a reaction against the austere scheme of life which the Puritans had imposed on society.

Puritanism not only deprived the people of evil pleasures, such as bear- baiting, c.o.c.k-fighting, and tippling, but it also prohibited the Sunday dances and games, the village festivals, and the popular drama. When Puritanism disappeared, the people went to the opposite extreme and cast off all restraint. In this the king, who had lived long at the gay court of Louis XIV, set the example. England was nevermore merry and never less moral than under its "Merry Monarch."

[Ill.u.s.tration: BOYS' SPORTS From a book of 1659 A.D.]

THE DISSENTERS

The Restoration brought back the Church of England, together with the Stuarts. Parliament, more intolerant than the king, pa.s.sed an Act of Uniformity, which made the use of the _Book of Common Prayer_ compulsory and required all ministers to express their consent to everything contained in it. Nearly two thousand clergymen resigned their positions rather than obey the act. Among them were found Presbyterians, Independents (or Congregationalists), Baptists, and Quakers. These Puritans, since they did not accept the national Church, were henceforth cla.s.sed as Dissenters. [25] They might not hold meetings for wors.h.i.+p, or teach in schools, or accept any public office. For many years the Dissenters had to endure harsh persecution.

HABEAS CORPUS ACT, 1679 A.D.

One of the most important events belonging to the reign of Charles II was the pa.s.sage by Parliament of the Habeas Corpus Act. The writ of _habeas corpus_ [26] is an order, issued by a judge, requiring a person held in custody to be brought before the court. If upon examination there appears to be good reason for keeping the prisoner, he is to be remanded for trial; otherwise he is to be freed or released on bail. This writ had been long used in England, and one of the clauses of Magna Carta expressly provided against arbitrary imprisonment. It had always been possible, however, for the king or his ministers to order the arrest of a person considered dangerous to the state, without making any formal charge against him. The Habeas Corpus Act established the principle that every man, not charged with or convicted of a known crime, is ent.i.tled to personal freedom. Most of the British possessions where the Common law prevails have accepted the act, and it has been adopted by the federal and state legislatures of the United States.

[Ill.u.s.tration: SILVER CROWN OF CHARLES II]

WHIGS AND TORIES

The reign of Charles II also saw the beginning of the modern party system in Parliament. Two opposing parties took shape, very largely out of a religious controversy. The king, from his long life in France, had become partial to Roman Catholicism, though he did not formally embrace that faith until at the moment of death. His brother James, the heir to the throne, became an open Roman Catholic, however, much to the disgust of many members of Parliament. A bill was now brought forward to exclude Prince James from the succession, because of his conversion. Its supporters received the nickname of Whigs, while those who opposed it were called Tories. [27] The bill did not pa.s.s the House of Lords, but the two parties in Parliament continued to divide on other questions. They survive to-day as the Liberals and the Conservatives, and still dispute the government of England between them.

REIGN OF JAMES II, 1685-1688 A.D.

James II was without the attractive personality which had made his brother a popular ruler; moreover, he was an avowed Roman Catholic and a staunch believer in the divine right of kings. During his three years' reign, James managed to make enemies of most of his Protestant subjects. He "suspended" the laws against Roman Catholics and appointed them to positions of authority and influence. James also dismissed Parliament and supported himself with subsidies from Louis XIV. At last a number of Whig and Tory leaders, representing both parties in Parliament, invited that st.u.r.dy Protestant, William of Orange, [28] to rescue England from Stuart absolutism.

ACCESSION OF WILLIAM AND MARY, 1689 A.D.

William landed in England with a small army and marched unopposed to London. The wretched king, deserted by his courtiers and his soldiers, soon found himself Harness alone. He fled to France, where he lived the remainder of his days as a pensioner at the court of Louis XIV. Parliament granted the throne conjointly to William and Mary, William to rule during his lifetime and Mary to have the succession, should she survive him.

THE BILL OF RIGHTS

In settling the crown on William and Mary, Parliament took care to safeguard its own authority and the of Protestant religion. It enacted the Bill of Rights, which has a place by the side of Magna Carta and the Pet.i.tion of Right among the great doc.u.ments of English const.i.tutional history. This act decreed that the sovereign must henceforth be a member of the Anglican Church. It forbade the sovereign to "suspend" the operation of the laws, or to levy money or maintain a standing army except by consent of Parliament. It also declared that election of members of Parliament ought to be free; that they ought to enjoy freedom of speech and action within the two Houses; and that excessive bail ought not to be required, or excessive fines imposed, or cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Finally, it affirmed the right of subjects to pet.i.tion the sovereign and ordered the holding of frequent Parliaments. These were not new principles of political liberty, but now the English people were strong enough not only to a.s.sert, but also to uphold them. They reappear in the first ten amendments to the Const.i.tution of the United States.

THE TOLERATION ACT

At this time, also, England took an important step in the direction of religious liberty. Parliament pa.s.sed a Toleration Act, conceding to the Dissenters the right of wors.h.i.+p, though not the right of holding any civil or military office. The Dissenters might now serve their G.o.d as they pleased, without fear of persecution. Unitarians and Roman Catholics, as well as Jews, were expressly excluded from the benefits of the act. The pa.s.sage of this measure did much to remove religion from English politics as a vital issue.

THE "GLORIOUS REVOLUTION"

The revolution of 1688-89 A.D. thus struck a final blow at absolutism and divine right in England. An English king became henceforth the servant of Parliament, holding office only on good behavior. An act of Parliament had made him and an act of Parliament might depose him. It is well to remember, however, that the revolution was not a popular movement. It was a successful struggle for parliamentary supremacy on the part of the upper and middle cla.s.ses--the n.o.bles, squires, merchants, and clergy. England now had a "limited" or "const.i.tutional" monarchy controlled by the aristocracy. Not till the nineteenth century did the common people succeed in establis.h.i.+ng a really democratic government in England.

249. ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

SOCIAL ENGLAND

The population of England at the close of the seventeenth century exceeded five millions, of whom at least two-thirds lived in the country. Except for London there were only four towns of more than ten thousand inhabitants. London counted half a million people within its limits and had become the largest city in Europe. Town life still wore a medieval look, but the increase of wealth gradually introduced many new comforts and luxuries. Coal came into use instead of charcoal; tea, coffee, and chocolate competed with wine, ale, and beer as beverages; the first newspapers appeared, generally in weekly editions; amus.e.m.e.nts multiplied; and pa.s.senger coaches began to ply between London and the provincial centers. The highways, however, were wretched and infested with robbers.

The traveler found some recompense for the hards.h.i.+ps of a journey in the country inns, famous for their plenty and good cheer. The transport of goods was chiefly by means of pack horses, because of the poor roads and the absence of ca.n.a.ls. Postal arrangements also remained very primitive, and in remote country districts letters were not delivered more than once a week. The difficulties of travel and communication naturally made for isolation; and country people, except the wealthy, rarely visited the metropolis.

[Ill.u.s.tration: A LONDON BELLMAN t.i.tle-page of a tract published in 1616 A.D. It was part of the duties of a bellman, or night-watchman, to call out the hours, the state of the weather, and other information as he pa.s.sed by.]

ECONOMIC ENGLAND

As the population of England increased, old industries developed and new ones sprang up. The chief manufacture was that of wool, while that of silk flourished after the influx of Huguenots which followed the revocation [29] of the Edict of Nantes. The absence of large textile mills made it necessary to carry on spinning and weaving in the homes of the operatives.

The vast mineral deposits, which in later times became the main source of England's prosperity, were then little worked. Farming and the raising of sheep and cattle still remained the princ.i.p.al occupations. But agriculture was r.e.t.a.r.ded by the old system of common tillage and open fields, just as industry was fettered by the trade monopoly of the craft guilds. These survivals of the Middle Ages had not yet disappeared.

[Ill.u.s.tration: COACH AND SEDAN CHAIR t.i.tle-page of a tract published in 1636 A.D.]

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

The seventeenth century in England saw a notable advance in science. At this time Harvey revealed the circulation of the blood. [30] Napier, a Scotchman, invented logarithms, which lie at the basis of the higher mathematics. Boyle, an Irishman, has been called the "father of modern chemistry," so many were his researches in that field of knowledge. Far greater than any of these men was Sir Isaac Newton, who discovered the law of gravitation and the differential calculus. During the Civil War a group of students interested in the natural world began to hold meetings in London and Oxford, and shortly after the Restoration they obtained a charter under the name of the Royal Society. It still exists and enrolls among its members the most distinguished scientists of England. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich also dates from the period of the Restoration.

Altogether much was being done to uncover the secrets of nature.

[Ill.u.s.tration: DEATH MASK OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON.

In the possession of the Royal Society of London.]

PROGRESS OF ART

Seventeenth century England produced no very eminent painters or sculptors, though foreign artists, such as Rubens and Van Dyck, were welcomed there. Among architects the most famous was Sir Christopher Wren, who did much to popularize the Renaissance style of building. [31] A great fire which destroyed most of old London during the reign of Charles II gave Wren an opportunity to rebuild about fifty parish churches, as well as St. Paul's Cathedral. His tomb in the crypt of the cathedral bears the famous inscription: _Si monumentum requieris, circ.u.mspice_: "If you seek his monument, look around you."

LITERATURE

English literature in the seventeenth century covered many fields.

Shakespeare and Bacon, the two chief literary ornaments of the Elizabethan Age, did some of their best work during the reign of James I. In 1611 A.D.

appeared the Authorized Version of the Bible, sometimes called the King James Version because it was dedicated to that monarch. The simplicity, dignity, and eloquence of this translation have never been excelled, and it still remains in ordinary use among Protestants throughout the English- speaking world. [32] The Puritan poet, John Milton, composed his epic of _Paradise Lost_ during the reign of Charles II. About the same time another Puritan, John Bunyan, wrote the immortal _Pilgrim's Progress_, a book which gives an equal though different pleasure to children and adults, to the ignorant and the learned. But these are only a few of the eminent poets and prose writers of the age.

POSITION OF ENGLAND

Thus, aside from its political importance, the seventeenth century formed a noteworthy period in English history. England until this time had been, on the whole, a follower rather than a leader of Europe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, the overthrow of Stuart absolutism, and the check administered to the aggressive designs of Louis XIV were so many indications that England had risen to a place of first importance in European affairs. During this century, too, the American colonies of England began to lay the basis for Anglo-Saxon predominance in the New World.

STUDIES

1. Give dates for (a) Peace of Utrecht, (b) execution of Charles I, (c) the "Glorious Revolution," and (d) revocation of the Edict of Nantes.