Early European History Part 36

CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE, 63 B.C.

The year of Cicero's consuls.h.i.+p was marked by an event which throws a lurid light on the conditions of the time. Lucius Catiline, a young n.o.ble of ability, but bankrupt in character and purse, organized a conspiracy to seize Rome, murder the magistrates, and plunder the rich. He gathered about himself outlaws of every description, slaves, and starving peasants --all the discontented and needy cla.s.ses throughout Italy. He and his a.s.sociates were desperate anarchists who sought to restore their own broken fortunes by overturning the government. The spread of the insurrection was checked by Cicero's vigorous measures. In a series of famous speeches he exposed Catiline's plans to the astounded Senate.

Catiline then fled to his camp in Etruria and shortly afterwards perished in battle, together with three thousand of his followers. Cicero now gained fresh popularity and honor. The grateful citizens called him "Father of his Country" (_Pater Patriae_).

RISE OF CAESAR

Rome at this time held another prominent leader in politics, namely, Gaius Julius Caesar. He belonged to a n.o.ble family, but his father had favored the democratic cause and his aunt had married Marius. After Sulla's death Caesar threw himself with energy into the game of politics at the capital city. In these early years the future statesman seems to have been a demagogue of the usual type, who sought through the favor of the people a rapid rise to power. He won the ear of the mult.i.tude by his fiery harangues, his bribes of money, and his gifts of food and public shows.

Caesar's expenditures for such purposes were enormous. Before he was twenty-four he had spent all his private fortune. Henceforth he was "financed" by the millionaire Cra.s.sus, who lent him the money so necessary for a successful career as a politician.

THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, 60 B.C.

Caesar and Cra.s.sus, the two leaders of the democratic party at Rome, now joined with Pompey in what is called the First Triumvirate. To this "ring"

Pompey contributed his military reputation, Cra.s.sus, his wealth, and Caesar, his influence over the Roman mob. Supported both by the people and by the army, these three men were really masters of Rome. An immediate result of the First Triumvirate was the appointment of Caesar as governor of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul.

[Ill.u.s.tration: GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR (British Museum, London)]

CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL, 58-50 B.C.

The story of his career in Gaul has been related by Caesar himself in the famous _Commentaries_. This book describes a series of military successes which have given the author a place among the world's generals. Caesar overran Transalpine Gaul, twice bridged the Rhine and invaded Germany, made two expeditions to Britain, and brought within the Roman dominions all the territory bounded by the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Atlantic Ocean.

ROMANIZATION OF GAUL

Caesar's conquests in Gaul are more than a chapter in the history of the art of war. They belong to the history of civilization. Henceforth the frontier of prehistoric Europe retreated rapidly to the north. The map of the ancient civilized world widened from the Mediterranean basin to the sh.o.r.es of the Atlantic. Into the conquered lands came the Latin language, the Roman law, and the customs and inst.i.tutions of Rome. Gaul speedily became one of the most flouris.h.i.+ng parts of the Roman world. "Let the Alps sink," exclaimed Cicero, "the G.o.ds raised them to shelter Italy from the barbarians, but now they are no longer needed."

DEFEAT AND DEATH OF CRa.s.sUS, 53 B.C.

During Caesar's long absence in Gaul the First Triumvirate was suddenly ended by the death of one of its members. It had been a part of their bargain in dividing the Roman world that Cra.s.sus should have the government of Syria. But this unlucky general, while aspiring to rival Caesar's exploits by new conquests beyond the Euphrates, lost his army and his life in battle with the Parthians. Besides checking the extension of the Roman arms in the remote East, the disaster had its effect on Roman politics. It dissolved the triumvirate and prepared the way for that rivalry between Caesar and Pompey which formed the next step in the downward course of the republic.

GROWING OPPOSITION BETWEEN POMPEY AND CAESAR

The two men were now rapidly drawing apart. Pompey grew more and more jealous of Caesar and more and more fearful that the latter was aiming at despotic power. He himself had no desire to be king or dictator. He was equally determined that Caesar should not gain such a position. In this att.i.tude he had the full support of Cicero and the other members of the Senate. They saw clearly that the real danger to the state was Caesar, not Pompey.

CAESAR DECLARES WAR IN THE REPUBLIC, 49 B.C.

Caesar's command in Gaul was to expire in 49 B.C. The senatorial party desired that he should return to Rome without an army. His opponents intended to prosecute him when he became a private citizen. Caesar had no inclination to trust himself to their tender mercies and refused to disband his legions unless his rival did the same. Finally the Senate, conscious of Pompey's support, ordered him to lay down his arms on pain of outlawry. Caesar replied to this challenge of the Senate by leading his troops across the Rubicon, the little stream that separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. As he plunged into the river, he exclaimed, "The die is cast."

[24] He had now declared war on the republic.

CAESAR MASTER OF THE WEST

Caesar's bold movement caught the senatorial party unawares. Pompey could not gather his legions before his audacious foe reached Rome. Finding it impossible to make a stand in Italy, Pompey, with the consuls and many senators, withdrew to Greece. Caesar did not follow him at once. He hurried to Spain and, after a brilliant campaign only six weeks in length, broke down the republican resistance in that peninsula. Having now secured Italy and Spain, Caesar was free to turn his forces against Pompey in the East.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Map, THE EXPANSION OF ROMAN DOMINIONS 133-31 B.C.]

BATTLE OF PHARSALUS, 48 B.C.

The final battle took place on the plain of Pharsalus in Thessaly.

Pompey's troops, though nearly twice as numerous as Caesar's, were defeated after a severe struggle. Their great leader then fled to Egypt, only to be foully murdered. Pompey's head was sent to Caesar, but he turned from it with horror. Such was the end of an able general and an honest man, one who should have lived two hundred years earlier, when Rome was still a free state.

CAESAR IN EGYPT, ASIA MINOR, AND AFRICA, 48-46 B.C.

After Pharsalus there still remained several years of fighting before Caesar's victory was complete. He made Cleopatra, the beautiful queen of Egypt, secure in the possession of the throne and brought that country into dependence on Rome. He pa.s.sed through Asia Minor and in one swift campaign crushed a revolt headed by the son of Mithridates. The conqueror sent tidings of his victory in a laconic dispatch: "I came, I saw, I conquered." [25] After subduing the remnants of the senatorial party in Africa, Caesar returned home to crown his exploits by a series of splendid triumphs and to enjoy less than two years of untrammeled power.

63. THE WORK OF CAESAR

AUTHORITY AND POSITION OF CAESAR

The new government which Caesar brought into being was a monarchy in all except name. He became dictator for life and held other republican offices, such as the consuls.h.i.+p and censors.h.i.+p. He refused the t.i.tle of king, but accepted as a civil magistrate the name of _imperator_, [26]

with which the soldiers had been wont to salute a victorious general.

Though he abolished none of the old republican forms, the Senate became simply his advisory council, the a.s.semblies, his submissive agents the consuls, praetors and tribunes, his pliant tools. The laurel wreath, the triumphal dress, the conqueror's scepter--all proclaimed the autocrat.

[Ill.u.s.tration: A ROMAN COIN WITH THE HEAD OF JULIUS CAESAR]

CHARACTER OF CAESAR'S RULE

Caesar used his power wisely and well. No ma.s.sacres or confiscations sullied his victory. He treated his former foes with clemency and even with kindness. No sooner was domestic tranquillity a.s.sured than, with restless energy, he entered on a series of far-reaching reforms.

REFORMS AT ROME AND IN ITALY

Caesar's measures sought to remove the economic evils which a century of discord had made so manifest. By restricting the monthly distribution of grain to those actually in need, he tried to discourage the public charity which was making the capital city a paradise for the idle and the s.h.i.+ftless. By planning great colonies beyond the sea, notably at Corinth and Carthage, he sought to provide farms for the landless citizens of Italy. His active mind even found time for such matters as the codification of Roman law, the construction of great public works, and the improvement of the coinage and the calendar. [27]

REFORMATION OF THE PROVINCIAL SYSTEM

Caesar's reforms in the provinces had an epoch-making character. He reduced taxes, lessened the burden of their collection, and took into his own hands the appointment of provincial magistrates. Henceforth oppressive governors and swindling publicans had to expect swift, stern punishment from one whose interests included the welfare of both citizens and subjects. By granting Roman citizens.h.i.+p to communities in Gaul and Sicily, he indicated his purpose, as rapidly as possible, to convert the provincials into Romans. It was Caesar's aim to break down the barriers between Rome and her provinces, to wipe out the distinction between the conquerors and the conquered.

a.s.sa.s.sINATION OF CAESAR, 44 B.C.

Caesar did not live to complete his task. Like that other colossal figure, Alexander the Great, he perished before his work as a statesman had hardly more than begun. On the Ides of March, 44 B.C., he was struck down in the Senate-house by the daggers of a group of envious and irreconcilable n.o.bles, headed by Ca.s.sius and Brutus. He fell at the foot of Pompey's statue, pierced with no less than twenty-three wounds. His body was burnt on a pyre in the Forum, and his friend, Antony, p.r.o.nounced the funeral eulogy.

CONSEQUENCES OF CAESAR'S DEATH

In the light of all the possibilities of beneficent government which Caesar was revealing, his cowardly murder becomes one of the most stupendous follies recorded in history. Caesar's death could not restore the republic. It served only to prolong disorder and strife within the Roman state. As Cicero himself said, hearing the news, "The tyrant is dead; the tyranny still lives."

64. ANTONY AND OCTAVIAN

ANTONY BECOMES CAESAR'S SUCCESSOR

The murderers of Caesar called themselves the "liberators" of the republic. They thought that all Rome would applaud their deed, but the contrary was true. The senatorial order remained lukewarm. The people, instead of flocking to their support, mourned the loss of a friend and benefactor. Soon the conspirators found themselves in great peril.

Caesar's friend and lieutenant, Antony, who became sole consul after Caesar's death, quickly made himself master of the situation. Brutus and Ca.s.sius were forced to withdraw to the provinces which had been previously a.s.signed to them by Caesar, leaving Antony to rule Rome as his successor.

A RIVAL IN THE YOUNG OCTAVIAN

Antony's hope of reigning supreme was soon disturbed by the appearance of a new rival. Caesar, in his will, had made his grandnephew, Octavian, [28]

his heir. He now came to Rome to claim the inheritance. In that sickly, studious youth people did not at first recognize the masterful personality he was soon to exhibit. They rather reechoed Cicero's sentiment that "the young man was to be praised, complimented, and got rid of." [29] But Octavian easily made himself a power, winning the populace by paying Caesar's legacies to them and conciliating the senatorial party by siding with it against Antony. Men now began to talk of Octavian as the destined restorer of the republic.

THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, 43 B.C.