Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy Part 13

96Alternative translation: " To bring them into harmony is called the Way."

97That is, they are mandated (or required) by Heaven.

98Compare Mengzi 4A27 on the notion of a "core" reaction.

99Compare a.n.a.lects 5.22.

100Compare a.n.a.lects 13.21.

101Unfortunately, we know almost nothing about these three individuals. However, there is an interesting and revealing anecdote involving Zeng Xi in a.n.a.lects 11.26.

102Cf. a.n.a.lects 17.13.

103Note that "grain" is also used in Mengzi 2A2 as a metaphor for one's incipient, natural virtues. Compare also the use of "sprouts" in Mengzi 2A6.

104Cf. a.n.a.lects 17.18 and 15.11.

CHAPTER FOUR.

LAOZI.

("The Daodejing")

Introduction.

Traditionally, Laozi is said to have been an older contemporary of Kongzi "Confucius" and the author of the Laozi or Daodejing But most contemporary scholars regard Laozi (literally "Old Master") as a mythical character and the Laozi to be a composite work. The present version of the text consists of short pa.s.sages, from a variety of sources, over half of which are rhymed. These were collected together into a single volume of eighty-one chapters that were then divided into two books. Book I consists of chapters one through thirty-seven, the dao , "Way," half of the text; Book II consists of chapters thirty-eight through eighty-one, the de , "Virtue," half. On the basis of this organization, this version of the text came to be known as the Daodejing, which means simply "The Cla.s.sic of Dao and De." This division in no way reflects the contents of the chapters themselves, except that the first chapter begins with the word dao and the thirty-eighth chapter begins by describing the highest de. The text may have reached its present form sometime during the third or perhaps second century B.C.E. Another version of the text, named after its place of discovery, Maw.a.n.gdui , is similar in content and firmly dated to the middle of the second century B.C.E. But in the Maw.a.n.gdui version, the order of the Books is reversed, giving us the Dedaojing Though it was probably cobbled together from different sources, the Laozi may well have been a.s.sembled during a relatively short period of time and perhaps by a single editor. When it was put together, China was near the end of a prolonged era of fierce interstate rivalry known as the Warring States Period (see Important Periods). The text can be understood, at least in part, as a reaction to this troubled age. In it we hear the lament of a time tired of war and chaos, one yearning for a bygone age of innocence, security, and peace. The text denounces wars of expansion and government corruption, and traces both complaints to the unbounded greed and ambition of those in power. These ideas are connected to the view that excessive desire per se is bad and the related belief that our "real" or "natural" desires are actually quite modest and limited. The text claims that it is unnatural to have excessive desires and having them will not only not lead to a satisfying life but paradoxically to dest.i.tution, want, alienation, and self-destruction.

The Laozi appeals to an earlier golden age in human history, before people made sharp distinctions among things. This was a time when values and qualities were not clearly distinguished, when things simply were as they were and people acted out of pre-reflective spontaneity. Chapter thirty-eight describes the history of the decline of the Way from an earlier golden age to its present debased state. The dao declined as civilization and human self-consciousness arose. The Laozi urges us to return to the earlier, natural state when the Way was fully realized in the world. We are to "untangle," "blunt," and "round off" the sharp corners of our present life and let our "wheels move only along old (and presumably more comfortable) ruts."

According to the Laozi, the dao is the source, sustenance, and ideal state of all things in the world. It is "hidden" and it contains within it the patterns of all that we see, but it is not ontologically transcendent. In the apt metaphor of the text, it is the "root" of all things. The dao is ziran , "so of itself" or "spontaneous," and its unenc.u.mbered activity brings about various natural states of affairs through wuwei , "nonaction" (see Important Terms). Human beings have a place in the dao but are not particularly exalted. They are simply things among things (a view well represented by the marvelous landscape paintings inspired by Daoism). Because of their unbridled desires and their unique capacity to think, act intentionally, and alter their nature-thus acting contrary to wuwei and bringing about states that are not ziran-humans tend to forsake their proper place and upset the natural harmony of the Way. The Laozi seeks to undo the consequences of such misguided human views and practices and lead us to "return" to the earlier ideal. The text is more a form of philosophical therapy than the presentation of a theory. We are to be challenged by its paradoxes and moved by its images and poetic cadence more than by any arguments it presents.

Book One

Chapter One.

A Way that can be followed is not a constant Way.1 A name that can be named is not a constant name.

Nameless, it is the beginning of Heaven and earth;2 Named, it is the mother of the myriad creatures.

And so, Always eliminate desires in order to observe its mysteries; Always have desires in order to observe its manifestations.

These two come forth in unity but diverge in name.

Their unity is known as an enigma.3 Within this enigma is yet a deeper enigma.

The gate of all mysteries!

Chapter Two.

Everyone in the world knows that when the beautiful strives to be beautiful, it is repulsive.

Everyone knows that when the good strives to be good, it is no good.4 And so, To have and to lack generate each other.5 Difficult and easy give form to each other.

Long and short off-set each other.

High and low incline into each other.

Note and rhythm harmonize with each other.

Before and after follow each other.

This is why sages abide in the business of nonaction,6 and practice the teaching that is without words.7 They work with the myriad creatures and turn none away.8 They produce without possessing.9 They act with no expectation of reward.10 When their work is done, they do not linger.11 And, by not lingering, merit never deserts them.

Chapter Three.

Not paying honor to the worthy leads the people to avoid contention.

Not showing reverence for precious goods12 leads them to not steal.

Not making a display of what is desirable leads their hearts away from chaos.13 This is why sages bring things to order by opening people's hearts14 and filling their bellies.

They weaken the people's commitments and strengthen their bones; They make sure that the people are without zhi, "knowledge,"15 or desires; And that those with knowledge do not dare to act.

Sages enact nonaction and everything becomes well ordered.

Chapter Four.

The Way is like an empty vessel; No use could ever fill it up.

Vast and deep!

It seems to be the ancestor of the myriad creatures.

It blunts their sharpness;16 Untangles their tangles; Softens their glare; Merges with their dust.

Deep and clear!

It seems to be there.

I do not know whose child it is; It is the image of what was before the Lord himself!17

Chapter Five.

Heaven and earth are not benevolent; They treat the myriad creatures as straw dogs.18 Sages are not benevolent; They treat the people as straw dogs.

Is not the s.p.a.ce between Heaven and earth like a bellows?

Empty yet inexhaustible!

Work it and more will come forth.

An excess of speech will lead to exhaustion,19 It is better to hold on to the mean.

Chapter Six.

The spirit of the valley never dies; She is called the "Enigmatic Female."

The portal of the Enigmatic Female; Is called the root of Heaven and earth.

An unbroken, gossamer thread; It seems to be there.

But use will not unsettle it.

Chapter Seven.

Heaven is long lasting; Earth endures.

Heaven is able to be long lasting and earth is able to endure, because they do not live for themselves.

And so, they are able to be long lasting and to endure.

This is why sages put themselves last and yet come first; Treat themselves as unimportant and yet are preserved.

Is it not because they have no thought of themselves, that they are able to perfect themselves?

Chapter Eight.

The highest good is like water.

Water is good at benefiting the myriad creatures, while not contending with them.

It resides in the places that people find repellent, and so comes close to the Way.

In a residence, the good lies in location.