Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy Part 8

How fine, how fine is King Wen!

His fame shall last forever!

If ghosts and spirits do not exist, then after he had died, how could King Wen move to the left and the right of the Lord? This is how I know that there are records of ghosts in the books of the Zhou.

"However, if only the books of the Zhou contained references to ghosts and one found no such references in the books of the Shang, then one could not take such stories as reliable models. But when we examine works from the Shang we find pa.s.sages such as the following, Oh in the Xia of ancient times, before it was visited by misfortune, the various beasts and bugs below and even the soaring birds above-not one behaved in an irregular manner. How much less would one who had a human face have ventured to have a deviant heart! Even among the ghosts and spirits of the mountains and streams, none dared to be unruly.69 We see that by being respectful and sincere, the rulers of the Xia united Heaven and earth and protected the earth below. And if we consider why none of the ghosts and spirits of the mountains and streams dared to be unruly, we see that it was in order to a.s.sist Yu in his work. This is how I know that there are records of ghosts in the books of the Shang.

"However, if only the books of the Shang contained references to ghosts and one found no such references in the books of the Xia, then one could not take such stories as reliable models. So let us examine works from the Xia. The "Declaration of Yu"70 says, A great battle was being waged at Gan and in its midst the king called for his six commanders of the left and right flanks to gather around him. He then declared to the a.s.sembled army below, 'This ruler of Hu71 has destroyed and reviled the Five Phases72 and has been remiss and abandoned the Three Spheres.73 Heaven shall cut off his mandate.'

Continuing he said, 'This very afternoon I shall fight the ruler of Hu to decide what this day holds for us. You ministers, high officials, and common men, know that I do this not because I desire his fields and treasures but only to respectfully carry out the punishment decreed by Heaven. If those on the left do not respectfully carry out the duties of the left and those on the right do not respectfully carry out the duties of the right, you will not be respectfully carrying out Heaven's mandate. If you charioteers do not drive your chariots straight, you will not be respectfully carrying out Heaven's mandate. [Today you are carrying out Heaven's mandate.] That is why the rewards for proper performance on this day will be conferred at the ancestral shrine and the punishments for failure will be meted out at the altar of soil.'

Why were the rewards for proper performance conferred at the ancestral shrine? In order to show the ghosts and spirits that they are fairly apportioned. Why were the punishments for failure meted out at the altar of soil? In order to show the ghosts and spirits that the cases were decided properly. And so we see that the ancient sage-kings clearly believed that ghosts and spirits could reward the worthy and punish the wicked. This is why rewards were conferred at the ancestral shrine and punishments meted out at the altar of soil. This is how I know that there are records of ghosts in the books of the Xia."

And so, in former times, in the records of the Xia and in the following works of the Shang and the Zhou, there are numerous and repeated references to ghosts and spirits. Why is this the case? Because the sage-kings were devoted to them. How can anyone who considers what these books say still doubt the existence of ghosts and spirits? . . .

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "If the ability of ghosts and spirits to reward the worthy and punish the wicked could be firmly established as fact throughout the empire and among the common people, it would surely bring order to the state and great benefit to the people. If state officials are dishonest or corrupt in carrying out their duties or men and women engage in illicit relations.h.i.+ps, the ghosts and spirits will see them! If the people turn to licentiousness, violence, rebellion, theft, or robbery and use weapons, poisons, water, or fire to attack travelers on the roads and byways and rob their carriages, horses, coats, and furs in order to profit themselves-there are ghosts and spirits who will see them!74 And so, state officials will not dare to be dishonest or corrupt. When they see good, they will not dare to not reward it and when they see wickedness, they will not dare to withhold punishment.75 Thereupon, there will be an end to the common people turning to licentiousness, violence, rebellion, theft, or robbery and using weapons, poisons, water, or fire to attack travelers on the roads and byways and rob their carriages, horses, coats, and furs in order to profit themselves. And so the world will be well-ordered.". . .

Our teacher Mozi says, ". . . If it were the case that ghosts and spirits do not really exist, then in offering sacrifices, all we would be doing is expending resources of wine and millet. But though we would be expending these resources, we would not simply be pouring the wine into a ditch or gully or throwing the millet away. Primary clan members76 and people living out in the villages and towns all have a chance to drink the sacrificial wine and partake of the offerings. And so even if the ghosts and spirits did not exist, these offerings would still be a means for welcoming and bringing together close family and gathering together and increasing fellows.h.i.+p among people living out in the villages and towns."77. . .

Chapter Thirty-Two: A Condemnation of Musical Performances78 Our teacher Mozi says, "The benevolent surely are those who devote themselves to finding ways to promote what is beneficial to the world while eliminating what is harmful; this is why they are proper models for human conduct throughout the world. If something benefits the world then they will do it. If it does not benefit the world then they will stop doing it. Moreover, when the benevolent think about the people of the world, if there is something that attracts their eyes, delights their ears, pleases their palates, and gives comfort to their bodies but this thing can only be gotten by sacrificing the people's stock of food and clothing, they will not engage in it."

And so our teacher Mozi does not condemn music because he thinks that the sounds of bells, drums, zithers, and pipes are not pleasing, nor because he thinks that inlaid and carved patterns and designs are not fine, nor because he thinks that roasts of grain- and gra.s.s-fed meat are not delicious, nor because he thinks that high towers, lofty halls, and secluded pavilions are not comfortable. Though his body knows the comfort of such places, his mouth the relish of such food, his eye the fineness of such patterns, and his ears the pleasure of such sounds, nevertheless, he sees that it does not accord with the practices of the sage-kings of old and does not promote the benefit of the people in the world today. And so our teacher Mozi says, "Musical performances are wrong!"

Our teacher Mozi says, "These days, when kings, dukes, and other persons of high rank engage in the manufacture of musical instruments as a function of state, it is no simple matter like slicing through water or breaking apart a piece of sod. Rather, they must heavily tax the people in order to enjoy the sounds of bells, drums, zithers, and pipes. If the production of these instruments were truly a.n.a.logous to the sage-kings' production of boats and carts, then I would not dare to condemn it. In ancient times, the sage-kings did indeed heavily tax the people in order to make boats and carts. But once these were completed and the people asked what they could be used for, they were told that the boats could be used for traveling over water while the carts could be used for traveling over land. By using these conveyances, gentlemen could rest their feet while common people could rest their shoulders and backs. And so why did the people give over their resources in order to produce boats and carts without considering it a burden or an imposition? Because they knew they would get something in return that benefitted them. Now if musical instruments produced a similar return that benefitted the people then I would not dare to condemn them.

"However, the present use of musical instruments imposes three hards.h.i.+ps upon the people. Because of the expenditures involved in producing such instruments, those who are hungry are unable to get food, those who are cold are unable to obtain clothing, and those who toil are not afforded a chance to rest. These are the three greatest hards.h.i.+ps upon the people. But what if we play the great bells, strike up the drums, sound the zithers, blow the pipes, and dance with s.h.i.+elds and battle axes? Will this enable the people to procure food or clothing? I believe that such performances will not produce such results. But let us set aside such concerns for the moment. For now great states attack lesser states and great families a.s.sault lesser families, the strong rob the weak, the many do violence to the few, the clever deceive the simple, those of n.o.ble rank act arrogantly toward those of humble rank, and rebels and bandits flourish and cannot be stopped. But what if we play the great bells, strike up the drums, sound the zithers, blow the pipes, and dance with s.h.i.+elds and battle axes? Will this bring order to the chaos that presently reigns in the world? I believe that such performances will not produce such results."

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "If we look to see whether heavily taxing the people to produce the sounds of great bells, drums, zithers, and pipes promotes the benefit of the people of the world and eliminates what is harmful to them, we see that it offers no such help."

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "Musical performances are wrong!"

Our teacher Mozi says, "These days, when kings, dukes, and great men sit up in their raised halls and broad pavilions and look down upon the great bells, the bells look like nothing more than inverted cauldrons. If there is no one to strike the great bells, how could they take delight in them? The bells must be struck in order to be enjoyed. But they cannot employ the very old or the very young to strike the bells. For the ears and eyes of such people are not sharp and clear, their limbs are not nimble and strong, the sounds they produce are not harmonious, and they cannot follow the complicated turns in the score. And so kings, dukes, and great men must employ people in their prime, for their ears and eyes are sharp and clear, their limbs are nimble and strong, the sounds they produce are harmonious, and they can follow the complicated turns in the performance. If they employ men to make music, then these men must abandon their work of ploughing, planting, and cultivation. If they employ women to make music, then these women must abandon their work of spinning, weaving, and sewing. These days, when kings, dukes, and great men put on musical performances, they divert such vast resources that could be used to produce food and clothing for the people."

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "Musical performances are wrong!"

Our teacher Mozi says, "Now let us suppose that the great bells, drums, zithers, and lutes have all been properly prepared. What pleasure would kings, dukes, and great men find in reverently listening to them all by themselves? Their enjoyment must come from listening to them in the company of common folk or gentlemen. But if they listen in the company of gentlemen, then those gentlemen must neglect the business of governing. And if they listen in the company of common folk, then those folk must abandon their proper work. These days, when kings, dukes, and great men put on musical performances, they divert such vast resources that could be used to produce food and clothing for the people."

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "Musical performances are wrong!"

Our teacher Mozi says, "In ancient times, Duke Kang of Qi79 found excitement and delight in the performance of the Dance of Wan.80 The performers of the dance were not permitted to wear coa.r.s.e and simple clothing nor could they eat plain or common food because it was said that, 'If their food and drink is not fine, their faces and complexion will be unworthy to look at. If their clothing is not fine, their figures and movements will be unworthy of view.' And so their food had to be only the finest grains and meats and their clothing had to be only embroidered silk. They never worked to produce their own food and clothing but always were supported by the work of others."

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "These days, when kings, dukes, and great men put on musical performances, they divert such vast resources that could be used to produce food and clothing for the people."

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "Musical performances are wrong!"

Our teacher Mozi says, "Now human beings certainly are different from the various kinds of birds, beasts, and bugs that one can find in the world today. The various birds, beasts, and bugs rely upon their feathers and fur for their clothing, their hoofs and claws for their leggings and shoes, and gra.s.s and water for their food and drink. And so even if the males do not plough and cultivate the land and even if the females do not spin and weave, these creatures are still a.s.sured of having food and clothing. Human beings differ in this respect. Those who labor upon the land survive, while those who do not perish. If gentlemen do not exert themselves in pursuing their duties at court, then the laws and administration will fall into chaos. If common folk do not exert themselves in carrying out their work, there will not be enough material goods.

"Now if men of rank and gentlemen in the world today believe that what I say is not true, let us try enumerating the allotted tasks that are pursued throughout the world in order to see the harm done by musical performances.

"Kings, dukes, and high officials begin their work at court early in the day and retire late in the evening, listening to litigation and carrying out the administration of government-these are their allotted tasks. Men of rank and gentlemen exhaust the strength of their limbs and exert every ounce of their wisdom attending to their official duties at court and collecting taxes and levies out in the pa.s.ses, markets, mountains, forests, lakes, and rivers in order to fill the state's granaries and treasuries-these are their allotted tasks. Farmers go out to the fields at dawn and return at dusk, ploughing, planting, cultivating, and reaping great harvests of grain and other produce-these are their allotted tasks. Women rise at dawn and retire in the evening, spinning and weaving to produce hemp, silk, linen, and other types of cloth-these are their allotted tasks.

"Now if those who serve as kings, dukes, and high officials delight in musical performances and spend their time listening to them, they will not be able to begin their work at court early in the day and retire late in the evening, listening to litigation and carrying out the administration of government. As a result, the state will fall into chaos and the altar of grain will be in jeopardy. If men of rank and gentlemen delight in musical performances and spend their time listening to them, they will not be able to exhaust the strength of their limbs and exert every ounce of their wisdom attending to their official duties at court and collecting taxes and levies out in the pa.s.ses, markets, mountains, forests, lakes, and rivers in order to fill the state's granaries and treasuries. As a result, the granaries and treasuries will not be full. If farmers delight in musical performances and spend their time listening to them, they will not be able to go out to the fields at dawn and return at dusk, ploughing, planting, cultivating, and reaping great harvests of grain and other produce. As a result, the supply of food will be insufficient. If women delight in musical performances and spend their time listening to them, they will not be able to rise at dawn and retire in the evening, spinning and weaving to produce hemp, silk, linen, and other types of cloth. As a result, there will not be an adequate supply of cloth. What is the cause of great men abandoning the administration of the government and the common people neglecting their work? It is music!"

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "Musical performances are wrong!"

Our teacher Mozi says, "How do I know that this is so? Among the works of the former kings, there is the following in Tang's Official Punishments,81 To allow constant dancing in one's hall is called Shamen's Fancy. If gentlemen commit this offense they are to be fined two bolts of silk. If it is a commoner, the fine is two hundred measures of yellow thread.82 The text goes on to say, Alas! The dancing goes on and on! The sound of the pipes is loud and clear! The Lord on High no longer supports him. He will lose the nine realms.83 The Lord on High no longer accomodates him and will send down a hundred calamities. His family will be ruined and annihilated.

If we look into why he lost the nine realms, we see it is simply because he promoted musical performances. The Wu Guan84 says, Qi85 then abandoned himself to l.u.s.t and music; he drank and ate in the wilds. Qiang! Qiang! The flutes and chimes sounded vigorously! He sank, besotted with wine! He ate gluttonously in the wilds! The Dance of Wan was elegant and fine and its performance was heard in Heaven. But Heaven did not approve.

And so, above, Heaven and the ghosts did not approve and, below, the people were not benefitted."

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "If men of rank and the gentlemen of the world really want to promote what is beneficial to the world and eliminate what is harmful to it, then they will prohibit and put an end to this thing called music!"

Chapter Thirty-Five: A Condemnation of Fatalism.

Our teacher Mozi says, "The kings, dukes, and great officials who now rule the various states all want their states to be wealthy, their populations great, and their administrations orderly, and yet instead of wealth they get poverty, instead of great populations they get meager ones, and instead of order they get chaos. In this way they fundamentally miss what they desire and get what they dislike."86 What is the reason for this?

Our teacher Mozi says, "This is because, among the people, there are so many who maintain a belief in fatalism. Those who believe in fatalism say, 'If the state is fated to be rich, then it will be rich; if it is fated to be poor, then it will be poor. If the state is fated to have a large population, then the population will be large; if it is fated to have a meager population, then the population will be meager. If the state is fated to be well ordered, then it will be well ordered; if it is fated to be in chaos, then it will be in chaos. If one is fated to live a long time, then one will live a long time; if one is fated to die young, then one will die young. If something is fated to occur, then no matter how hard one tries to change this, what good will it do?' Above they use this doctrine to persuade the kings, dukes, and great officials and below they deploy it to interfere with work of the people. Therefore, those who maintain a belief in fatalism are not benevolent and their claims must be carefully examined."

Since this is the case, how are we to go about carefully examining their claims?

Our teacher Mozi says, "When one advances claims, one must first establish a standard of a.s.sessment. To make claims in the absence of such a standard is like trying to establish on the surface of a spinning potter's wheel where the sun will rise and set.87 Without a fixed standard, one cannot clearly ascertain what is right and wrong or what is beneficial and harmful. And so, in a.s.sessing claims, one must use the three gauges."88 What are the "three gauges?"

Our teacher Mozi says, "The gauges of precedent, evidence, and application."

How does one a.s.sess a claim's precedents?

Our teacher Mozi says, "One looks up for precedents among the affairs and actions of the ancient sage-kings."

How does one a.s.sess a claim's evidence?

Our teacher Mozi says, "One looks down to examine evidence of what the people have heard and seen."

How does one a.s.sess a claim's application?

Our teacher Mozi says, "One implements it as state policy and sees whether or not it produces benefit for the state, families, and people. These are what are called the three gauges for a.s.sessing claims.". . .

SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Translations Mei, Yi-pao 1929 The Ethical and Political Works of Motse. London: Arthur Probsthain. (The most complete translation of Mozi's works available in English.) Watson, Burton 1963 Mo Tzu: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press. (A readable, selective English translation of the Mozi. Contains selections from each set of synoptic chapters, plus one of the "Against Confucians" chapters.) Secondary Works Graham, A. C.

1978 Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. (A brilliant reconstruction, translation, and a.n.a.lysis of later Mohist philosophy and science.) 1985 Divisions in Early Mohism Reflected in the Core Chapters of Mo-tzu. Singapore: National University of Singapore, Inst.i.tute of East Asian Philosophies. (An intriguing though speculative study that argues that the synoptic chapters can be rearranged to reveal three schools of later Mohist thought, each with a distinct political agenda and philosophical position.) Ivanhoe, Philip J.

1998 "Mohist Philosophy," in The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 6, pp. 45155. London: Routledge Press. (An introduction to the philosophy of Mozi and his followers.) Lowe, Scott 1992 Mo Tzu's Religious Blueprint for a Chinese Utopia. Lewiston: The Edwin Mellon Press, Ltd. (A general study of early Mohist religious thought. Offers brief though incisive criticisms of much of the contemporary scholars.h.i.+p available in English.) Nivison, David S.

1996 "Two Roots or One?" in The Ways of Confucianism: Investigations in Chinese Philosophy, Bryan W. Van Norden, ed., pp. 13348. La Salle, IL: Open Court Press. (A philosophically sophisticated discussion of the ethical thought and theory of moral action of the later Mohist, Yi Zhi.) 1During Kongzi's life and after his death, people began to declare themselves followers of Kongzi and his Way. At this point, it makes sense to describe these people as const.i.tuting a "Confucian" tradition or "Confucianism."

2There are multiple versions of many of the central chapters of the Mozi; these probably reflect the views of the three different sects of Mohism, which appeared after Mozi's death. I have chosen what I consider to be the most interesting version of each chapter translated here. Our chapter headings refer to the primary divisions in standard editions of the complete text.

3The Mozi is unique among early Chinese philosophical texts in the manner in which it refers to its author. Most philosophers of the period were referred to as "Master so-and-so" by adding the honorific zi after the person's surname (see Important Terms). In the case of Mo Di this would yield "Mozi." But the Mohists refer to their master as zimozi . This probably meant "Our teacher Master Mo." A similar prefixed use of zi is found in the Gongyang commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals.

4The Mozi often employs the literary device of an unnamed interlocutor to carry forth the dialogue.

5The site of important state sacrifices and often used as a metaphor for the foundation and stability of the state. Cf. Mozi's various references to this and other sacrificial sites in "On Ghosts." See Mozi, chapter 31, pp. 94104.

6That is, people were evaluated and served only on the basis of their righteousness.

7This seems to have been a recognizable political slogan of the time.

8A place of uncertain location.

9Yi is Bo Yi (not to be confused with the brother of Shu Qi-see Important Figures). Bo Yi a.s.sisted Yu in his flood-control work and served him as an exemplary minister. Yinfang is a place of uncertain location. According to an ancient system of territorial division, China consisted of "nine realms."

10Hong Yao and Tai Yi were gamekeepers for King Wen. Technically, "rabbit snares" should be rendered "rabbit nets." See selection # 177 (Mao # 278) in Arthur Waley, The Book of Songs (London: Allen and Unwin, 1952) for a poem singing the praises of such a gamekeeper, describing him as a fitting companion and confidant for a king. (Note: The Book of Songs is Waley's translation of the cla.s.sic referred to in this volume as the Odes.) 11The character yi ,that I here translate as "norm" (for deciding what is right and wrong) is often rendered as "right" or "righteousness" (see Important Terms). The senses are clearly related, but the context here argues for "norm" as more appropriate.

12"Right and wrong" is the translation of the Chinese terms s.h.i.+/fei . Below, these terms are rendered verbally as "to approve" and "to condemn." Cf Mengzi 2A6 and n. 27 to that pa.s.sage.

13The Five Punishments are said to be tattooing the face, cutting off the nose, cutting off the feet, castration, and death.

14Ba, Yue, Qi, and Jing are four ancient states that were far removed from the center of Chinese civilization at the time.

15People lying unburied in the ditches and gullies was a common trope used to ill.u.s.trate a state of profound misrule. Cf. for example, Mengzi 1B12, 2B4 (not in this volume).

16Picking up Mount Tai and carrying it across a vast expanse of water is a common trope for an impossible task. Cf. Mengzi 1A7 where the vast expanse of water is the North Sea. The Chang Jiang or "Yangtze River" and the Huang He or "Yellow River" are the largest rivers in central China.

17Kings Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu.

18The "Great Oath" was a speech purportedly given by King Wu. The original was said to be included in the History but was lost. A later forgery is included in the present edition of the History and part of it is quite similar to what Mozi quotes here. See Legge, The Shoo King, pp. 29697.

19The Oath of Yu is a lost section of the History that purportedly recorded the words of the sage-king Yu. Again a pa.s.sage that is quite similar to what Mozi quotes can be found in the present text. See Legge, The Shoo King, pp. 64-65.

20The "little one" (literally, "small child") is a self-deprecating term of self-reference used by virtuous kings.

21The Miao are said to be a people who lived to the southeast in the area of present-day Hunan and Hubei.

22The Declaration of Tang is another lost section of the History that purportedly recorded the words of the sage-king Tang. However, lines similar to what Mozi here quotes appear in a.n.a.lects, chapter 20. Also similar lines can be found scattered throughout the present Announcement of Tang section of the History. See Legge, The Shoo King, pp. 18490.

23On the "little one" see n. 20. Lu is the personal name of King Tang and in such a public context, this use of the personal name is another humble form of self-reference.

24This leads us to look in the Odes. However, the present text has only the last four lines quoted here (Mao # 203) with slight variation. The first four lines, though, are found with slight variation in the present text of the History. For the last four lines, see James Legge, tr., The Chinese Cla.s.sics, Volume IV, The She King, reprint (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1970), p. 353; for the first four, see Legge, The Shoo King, p. 331.

25The Elegies are a section in the Odes (see Odes under Important Texts). Only the first two lines, with slight variation, appear in the present version of the text. See Legge, The She King, op. cit., p. 514.

26This and the following story about the King of Yue are also cited by Han Feizi in "The Two Handles." See Han Feizi, chapter 7, pp. 32526.

27The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties.

28Almost certainly, Mozi here has in mind the Confucians who maintained elaborate and prolonged rituals of mourning. See for example, a.n.a.lects 17.21, Mengzi 3A5 and 7A39, and Xunzi's "Discourse on Ritual." See Xunzi, chapter 19, pp. 27485.

29This refers to ritual sacrifice, most popular during the Shang but still practiced in Mozi's own time. Mengzi quotes Kongzi as definitively rejecting even the vestiges of such practices. See Mengzi 1A4 (not in this volume).

30A list of these offices and their duties can be found in a later work called the Liji ("Book of Rites"). See the entry on the Rites under Important Texts. For a translation, see James Legge, tr., The Li Chi: Book of Rites, reprint, vol. 1 (New York: University Books, 1967), pp. 10910.

31The rulers of these particular states were jousting for preeminence in Mozi's time.

32As seen clearly in the following two chapters, Mozi was a religious conservative and a fundamentalist. He insisted that a belief in and the wors.h.i.+p of the Lord on High, ghosts, and spirits was necessary for a stable and flouris.h.i.+ng society. He was very much opposed to the more naturalized, psychological interpretations of religious ceremony that were evolving among Confucian thinkers of the time.

33The name given to various non-Chinese people to the north of Chinese territory.

34The location of this mountain is not clear, though it obviously was located somewhere to the north of what was Chinese territory at the time.

35Showing that it was not accorded any special status.

36The name given to various non-Chinese people to the west of Chinese territory.

37Scholars do not agree about the location of this town. It obviously was located somewhere to the west of what was Chinese territory at the time.

38The name given to various non-Chinese people to the east of Chinese territory. Thus Mozi's narrative purports to report on funeral practices throughout all of China and its three land borders.

39A mountain located in Shanyin county of present-day Zhejiang province.

40This indicates that the grave was of very modest proportions for a king.

41That is, China.

42This appears to have been a common saying of the times.

43The precise location of this state is uncertain but its location, "east of Yue," connotes a faraway and culturally primitive area.

44The precise location of this state is uncertain but its location, "south of Chu," connotes a faraway and culturally primitive area.

45Such secondary reburial of bones, while never the dominant practice, is well attested in very early China. There is evidence for the practice in the Central Plains and Northwest as far back as the fifth millennium B.C.E. See David N. Keightley, "Early Civilization in China: Reflections on How It Became Chinese," in Heritage of China, Paul S. Ropp, ed. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990), p. 24.

46Qin was the state farthest to the west and was considered culturally backward in Mozi's time.

47In the basic annals section for the state of Qin in Sima Qian's s.h.i.+ji ("Record of the Historian"), there is reference to a state by this name. Its exact location is still a matter of debate.

48The word translated here as "will" is zhi , which means the settled and persisting intention of an agent. For Mozi, Heaven was less a personality with a capricious or unknowable will and more an established, observable, and predictable set of inclinations.

49Mozi has in mind here the practice of living in a family compound, where several generations share a common courtyard but each have their separate quarters.

50 This seems to have been a common saying of the time but its source is unknown.