The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex Volume II Part 4

Turning now to domesticated and confined birds, I will commence by giving what little I have learnt respecting the courts.h.i.+p of fowls. I have received long letters on this subject from Messrs. Hewitt and Tegetmeier, and almost an essay from the late Mr. Brent. It will be admitted by every one that these gentlemen, so well known from their published works, are careful and experienced observers. They do not believe that the females prefer certain males on account of the beauty of their plumage; but some allowance must be made for the artificial state under which they have long been kept. Mr. Tegetmeier is convinced that a game-c.o.c.k, though disfigured by being dubbed with his hackles trimmed, would be accepted as readily as a male retaining all his natural ornaments. Mr. Brent, however, admits that the beauty of the male probably aids in exciting the female; and her acquiescence is necessary. Mr. Hewitt is convinced that the union is by no means left to mere chance, for the female almost invariably prefers the most vigorous, defiant, and mettlesome male; hence it is almost useless, as he remarks, "to attempt true breeding if a game-c.o.c.k in good health and condition runs the locality, for almost every hen on leaving the roosting-place will resort to the game-c.o.c.k, even though that bird may not actually drive away the male of her own variety." Under ordinary circ.u.mstances the males and females of the fowl seem to come to a mutual understanding by means of certain gestures, described to me by Mr. Brent. But hens will often avoid the officious attentions of young males. Old hens, and hens of a pugnacious disposition, as the same writer informs me, dislike strange males, and will not yield until well beaten into compliance.

Ferguson, however, describes how a quarrelsome hen was subdued by the gentle courts.h.i.+p of a Shanghai c.o.c.k.[167]

There is reason to believe that pigeons of both s.e.xes prefer pairing with birds of the same breed; and dovecot-pigeons dislike all the highly improved breeds.[168] Mr. Harrison Weir has lately heard from a trustworthy observer, who keeps blue pigeons, that these drive away all other coloured varieties, such as white, red, and yellow; and from another observer, that a female dun carrier could not be matched, after repeated trials, with a black male, but immediately paired with a dun.

Generally colour alone appears to have little influence on the pairing of pigeons. Mr. Tegetmeier, at my request, stained some of his birds with magenta, but they were not much noticed by the others.

Female pigeons occasionally feel a strong antipathy towards certain males, without any a.s.signable cause. Thus MM. Boitard and Corbie, whose experience extended over forty-five years, state: "Quand une femelle eprouve de l'antipathie pour un male avec lequel on veut l'accoupler, malgre tous les feux de l'amour, malgre l'alpiste et le chenevis dont on la nourrit pour augmenter son ardeur, malgre un emprisonnement de six mois et meme d'un an, elle refuse constamment ses caresses; les avances empressees, les agaceries, les tournoiemens, les tendres roucoulemens, rien ne peut lui plaire ni l'emouvoir; gonflee, boudeuse, blottie dans un coin de sa prison, elle n'en sort que pour boire et manger, ou pour repousser avec une espece de rage des caresses devenues trop pressantes."[169] On the other hand, Mr. Harrison Weir has himself observed, and has heard from, several breeders, that a female pigeon will occasionally take a strong fancy for a particular male, and will desert her own mate for him. Some females, according to another experienced observer, Riedel,[170] are of a profligate disposition, and prefer almost any stranger to their own mate. Some amorous males, called by our English fanciers "gay birds," are so successful in their gallantries, that, as Mr. H. Weir informs me, they must be shut up, on account of the mischief which they cause.

Wild turkeys in the United States, according to Audubon, "sometimes pay their addresses to the domesticated females, and are generally received by them with great pleasure." So that these females apparently prefer the wild to their own males.[171]

Here is a more curious case. Sir R. Heron during many years kept an account of the habits of the peafowl, which he bred in large numbers. He states that "the hens have frequently great preference to a particular peac.o.c.k. They were all so fond of an old pied c.o.c.k, that one year, when he was confined though still in view, they were constantly a.s.sembled close to the trellice-walls of his prison, and would not suffer a j.a.panned peac.o.c.k to touch them. On his being let out in the autumn, the oldest of the hens instantly courted him, and was successful in her courts.h.i.+p. The next year he was shut up in a stable, and then the hens all courted his rival."[172] This rival was a j.a.panned or black-winged peac.o.c.k, which to our eyes is a more beautiful bird than the common kind.

Lichtenstein, who was a good observer and had excellent opportunities of observation at the Cape of Good Hope, a.s.sured Rudolphi that the female widow-bird (_Chera progne_) disowns the male, when robbed of the long tail-feathers with which he is ornamented during the breeding-season. I presume that this observation must have been made on birds under confinement.[173] Here is another striking case; Dr. Jaeger,[174]

director of the Zoological Gardens of Vienna, states that a male silver pheasant, who had been triumphant over the other males and was the accepted lover of the females, had his ornamental plumage spoiled.

He was then immediately superseded by a rival, who got the upper hand and afterwards led the flock.

Not only does the female exert a choice, but in some few cases she courts the male, or even fights for his possession. Sir R. Heron states that with peafowl, the first advances are always made by the female; something of the same kind takes place, according to Audubon, with the older females of the wild turkey. With the capercailzie, the females flit round the male, whilst he is parading at one of the places of a.s.semblage, and solicit his attention.[175] We have seen that a tame wild-duck seduced after a long courts.h.i.+p an unwilling Pintail drake. Mr.

Bartlett believes that the Lophophorus, like many other gallinaceous birds, is naturally polygamous, but two females cannot be placed in the same cage with a male, as they fight so much together. The following instance of rivalry is more surprising as it relates to bullfinches, which usually pair for life. Mr. Jenner Weir introduced a dull-coloured and ugly female into his aviary, and she immediately attacked another mated female so unmercifully that the latter had to be separated. The new female did all the courts.h.i.+p, and was at last successful, for she paired with the male; but after a time she met with a just retribution, for, ceasing to be pugnacious, Mr. Weir replaced the old female, and the male then deserted his new and returned to his old love.

In all ordinary cases the male is so eager that he will accept any female, and does not, as far as we can judge, prefer one to the other; but exceptions to this rule, as we shall hereafter see, apparently occur in some few groups. With domesticated birds, I have heard of only one case in which the males shew any preference for particular females, namely, that of the domestic c.o.c.k, who, according to the high authority of Mr. Hewitt, prefers the younger to the older hens. On the other hand, in effecting hybrid unions between the male pheasant and common hens, Mr. Hewitt is convinced that the pheasant invariably prefers the older birds. He does not appear to be in the least influenced by their colour, but "is most capricious in his attachments."[176] From some inexplicable cause he shews the most determined aversion to certain hens, which no care on the part of the breeder can overcome. Some hens, as Mr. Hewitt informs me, are quite unattractive even to the males of their own species, so that they may be kept with several c.o.c.ks during a whole season, and not one egg out of forty or fifty will prove fertile.

On the other hand with the Long-tailed duck (_Harelda glacialis_), "it has been remarked," says M. Ekstrom, "that certain females are much more courted than the rest. Frequently, indeed, one sees an individual surrounded by six or eight amorous males." Whether this statement is credible, I know not; but the native sportsmen shoot these females in order to stuff them as decoys.[177]

With respect to female birds feeling a preference for particular males, we must bear in mind that we can judge of choice being exerted, only by placing ourselves in imagination in the same position. If an inhabitant of another planet were to behold a number of young rustics at a fair, courting and quarrelling over a pretty girl, like birds at one of their places of a.s.semblage, he would be able to infer that she had the power of choice only by observing the eagerness of the wooers to please her, and to display their finery. Now with birds, the evidence stands thus; they have acute powers of observation, and they seem to have some taste for the beautiful both in colour and sound. It is certain that the females occasionally exhibit, from unknown causes, the strongest antipathies and preferences for particular males. When the s.e.xes differ in colour or in other ornaments, the males with rare exceptions are the most highly decorated, either permanently or temporarily during the breeding-season. They sedulously display their various ornaments, exert their voices, and perform strange antics in the presence of the females.

Even well-armed males, who, it might have been thought, would have altogether depended for success on the law of battle, are in most cases highly ornamented; and their ornaments have been acquired at the expense of some loss of power. In other cases ornaments have been acquired, at the cost of increased risk from birds and beasts of prey. With various species many individuals of both s.e.xes congregate at the same spot, and their courts.h.i.+p is a prolonged affair. There is even reason to suspect that the males and females within the same district do not always succeed in pleasing each other and pairing.

What then are we to conclude from these facts and considerations? Does the male parade his charms with so much pomp and rivalry for no purpose?

Are we not justified in believing that the female exerts a choice, and that she receives the addresses of the male who pleases her most? It is not probable that she consciously deliberates; but she is most excited or attracted by the most beautiful, or melodious, or gallant males. Nor need it be supposed that the female studies each stripe or spot of colour; that the peahen, for instance, admires each detail in the gorgeous train of the peac.o.c.k-she is probably struck only by the general effect. Nevertheless after hearing how carefully the male Argus pheasant displays his elegant primary wing-feathers, and erects his ocellated plumes in the right position for their full effect; or again, how the male goldfinch alternately displays his gold-bespangled wings, we ought not to feel too sure that the female does not attend to each detail of beauty. We can judge, as already remarked, of choice being exerted, only from the a.n.a.logy of our own minds; and the mental powers of birds, if reason be excluded, do not fundamentally differ from ours.

From these various considerations we may conclude that the pairing of birds is not left to chance; but that those males, which are best able by their various charms to please or excite the female, are under ordinary circ.u.mstances accepted. If this be admitted, there is not much difficulty in understanding how male birds have gradually acquired their ornamental characters. All animals present individual differences, and as man can modify his domesticated birds by selecting the individuals which appear to him the most beautiful, so the habitual or even occasional preference by the female of the more attractive males would almost certainly lead to their modification; and such modifications might in the course of time be augmented to almost any extent, compatible with the existence of the species.

_Variability of Birds, and especially of their secondary s.e.xual Characters._-Variability and inheritance are the foundations for the work of selection. That domesticated birds have varied greatly, their variations being inherited, is certain. That birds in a state of nature present individual differences is admitted by every one; and that they have sometimes been modified into distinct races, is generally admitted.[178] Variations are of two kinds, which insensibly graduate into each other, namely, slight differences between all the members of the same species, and more strongly-marked deviations which occur only occasionally. These latter are rare with birds in a state of nature, and it is very doubtful whether they have often been preserved through selection, and then transmitted to succeeding generations.[179]

Nevertheless, it may be worth while to give the few cases relating chiefly to colour (simple albinism and melanism being excluded), which I have been able to collect.

Mr. Gould is well known rarely to admit the existence of varieties, for he esteems very slight differences as specific; now he states[180] that near Bogota certain humming-birds belonging to the genus Cynanthus are divided into two or three races or varieties, which differ from each other in the colouring of the tail,-"some having the whole of the feathers blue, while others have the eight central ones tipped with beautiful green." It does not appear that intermediate gradations have been observed in this or the following cases. In the males alone of one of the Australian parrakeets "the thighs in some are scarlet, in others gra.s.s-green." In another parrakeet of the same country "some individuals have the band across the wing-coverts bright-yellow, while in others the same part is tinged with red."[181] In the United States some few of the males of the Scarlet Tanager (_Tanagra rubra_) have "a beautiful transverse band of glowing red on the smaller wing-coverts;"[182] but this variation seems to be somewhat rare, so that its preservation through s.e.xual selection would follow only under unusually favourable circ.u.mstances. In Bengal the Honey buzzard (_Pernis cristata_) has either a small rudimental crest on its head, or none at all; so slight a difference however would not have been worth notice, had not this same species possessed in Southern India "a well-marked occipital crest formed of several graduated feathers."[183]

The following case is in some respects more interesting. A pied variety of the raven, with the head, breast, abdomen, and parts of the wings and tail-feathers white, is confined to the Feroe Islands. It is not very rare there, for Graba saw during his visit from eight to ten living specimens. Although the characters of this variety are not quite constant, yet it has been named by several distinguished ornithologists as a distinct species. The fact of the pied birds being pursued and persecuted with much clamour by the other ravens of the island was the chief cause which led Brunnich to conclude that it was specifically distinct; but this is now known to be an error.[184]

In various parts of the northern seas a remarkable variety of the common Guillemot (_Uria troile_) is found; and in Feroe, one out of every five birds, according to Graba's estimation, consists of this variety. It is characterised[185] by a pure white ring round the eye, with a curved narrow white line, an inch and a half in length, extending back from the ring. This conspicuous character has caused the bird to be ranked by several ornithologists as a distinct species under the name of _U.

lacrymans_, but it is now known to be merely a variety. It often pairs with the common kind, yet intermediate gradations have never been seen; nor is this surprising, for variations which appear suddenly are often, as I have elsewhere shewn,[186] transmitted either unaltered or not at all. We thus see that two distinct forms of the same species may co-exist in the same district, and we cannot doubt that if the one had possessed any great advantage over the other, it would soon have been multiplied to the exclusion of the latter. If, for instance, the male pied ravens, instead of being persecuted and driven away by their comrades, had been highly attractive, like the pied peac.o.c.k before mentioned, to the common black females, their numbers would have rapidly increased. And this would have been a case of s.e.xual selection.

With respect to the slight individual differences which are common, in a greater or less degree, to all the members of the same species, we have every reason to believe that they are by far the most important for the work of selection. Secondary s.e.xual characters are eminently liable to vary, both with animals in a state of nature and under domestication.[187] There is also reason to believe, as we have seen in our eighth chapter, that variations are more apt to occur in the male than in the female s.e.x. All these contingencies are highly favourable for s.e.xual selection. Whether characters thus acquired are transmitted to one s.e.x or to both s.e.xes, depends exclusively in most cases, as I hope to shew in the following chapter, on the form of inheritance which prevails in the groups in question.

It is sometimes difficult to form any opinion whether certain slight differences between the s.e.xes of birds are simply the result of variability with s.e.xually-limited inheritance, without the aid of s.e.xual selection, or whether they have been augmented through this latter process. I do not here refer to the innumerable instances in which the male displays splendid colours or other ornaments, of which the female partakes only to a slight degree; for these cases are almost certainly due to characters primarily acquired by the male, having been transferred, in a greater or less degree, to the female. But what are we to conclude with respect to certain birds in which, for instance, the eyes differ slightly in colour in the two s.e.xes?[188] In some cases the eyes differ conspicuously; thus with the storks of the genus _Xenorhynchus_ those of the male are blackish-hazel, whilst those of the females are gamboge-yellow; with many hornbills (Buceros), as I hear from Mr. Blyth,[189] the males have intense crimson, and the females white eyes. In the _Buceros bicornis_, the hind margin of the casque and a stripe on the crest of the beak are black in the male, but not so in the female. Are we to suppose that these black marks and the crimson colour of the eyes have been preserved or augmented through s.e.xual selection in the males? This is very doubtful; for Mr. Bartlett shewed me in the Zoological Gardens that the inside of the mouth of this Buceros is black in the male and flesh-coloured in the female; and their external appearance or beauty would not be thus affected. I observed in Chili[190] that the iris in the condor, when about a year old, is dark-brown, but changes at maturity into yellowish-brown in the male, and into bright red in the female. The male has also a small, longitudinal, leaden-coloured, fleshy crest or comb. With many gallinaceous birds the comb is highly ornamental, and a.s.sumes vivid colours during the act of courts.h.i.+p; but what are we to think of the dull-coloured comb of the condor, which does not appear to us in the least ornamental? The same question may be asked in regard to various other characters, such as the k.n.o.b on the base of the beak of the Chinese goose (_Anser cygnoides_), which is much larger in the male than in the female. No certain answer can be given to these questions; but we ought to be cautious in a.s.suming that k.n.o.bs and various fleshy appendages cannot be attractive to the female, when we remember that with savage races of man various hideous deformities-deep scars on the face with the flesh raised into protuberances, the septum of the nose pierced by sticks or bones, holes in the ears and lips stretched widely open-are all admired as ornamental.

Whether or not unimportant differences between the s.e.xes, such as those just specified, have been preserved through s.e.xual selection, these differences, as well as all others, must primarily depend on the laws of variation. On the principle of correlated development, the plumage often varies on different parts of the body, or over the whole body, in the same manner. We see this well ill.u.s.trated in certain breeds of the fowl.

In all the breeds the feathers on the neck and loins of the males are elongated, and are called hackles; now when both s.e.xes acquire a top-knot, which is a new character in the genus, the feathers on the head of the male become hackle-shaped, evidently on the principle of correlation; whilst those on the head of the female are of the ordinary shape. The colour also of the hackles forming the top-knot of the male, is often correlated with that of the hackles on the neck and loins, as may be seen by comparing these feathers in the Golden and Silver-spangled Polish, the Houdans, and Creve-cur breeds. In some natural species we may observe exactly the same correlation in the colours of these same feathers, as in the males of the splendid Golden and Amherst pheasants.

The structure of each individual feather generally causes any change in its colouring to be symmetrical; we see this in the various laced, spangled, and pencilled breeds of the fowl; and on the principle of correlation the feathers over the whole body are often modified in the same manner. We are thus enabled without much trouble to rear breeds with their plumage marked and coloured almost as symmetrically as in natural species. In laced and spangled fowls the coloured margins of the feathers are abruptly defined; but in a mongrel raised by me from a black Spanish c.o.c.k glossed with green and a white game hen, all the feathers were greenish-black, excepting towards their extremities, which were yellowish-white; but between the white extremities and the black bases, there was on each feather a symmetrical, curved zone of dark-brown. In some instances the shaft of the feather determines the distribution of the tints; thus with the body-feathers of a mongrel from the same black Spanish c.o.c.k and a silver-spangled Polish hen, the shaft, together with a narrow s.p.a.ce on each side, was greenish-black, and this was surrounded by a regular zone of dark-brown, edged with brownish-white. In these cases we see feathers becoming symmetrically shaded, like those which give so much elegance to the plumage of many natural species. I have also noticed a variety of the common pigeon with the wing-bars symmetrically zoned with three bright shades, instead of being simply black on a slaty-blue ground, as in the parent-species.

In many large groups of birds it may be observed that the plumage is differently coloured in each species, yet that certain spots, marks, or stripes, though likewise differently coloured, are retained by all the species. a.n.a.logous cases occur with the breeds of the pigeon, which usually retain the two wing-bars, though they may be coloured red, yellow, white, black, or blue, the rest of the plumage being of some wholly different tint. Here is a more curious case, in which certain marks are retained, though coloured in almost an exactly reversed manner to what is natural; the aboriginal pigeon has a blue tail, with the terminal halves of the outer webs of the two outer tail-feathers white; now there is a sub-variety having a white instead of a blue tail, with precisely that small part black which is white in the parent-species.[191]

_Formation and variability of the Ocelli or eye-like Spots on the Plumage of Birds._-As no ornaments are more beautiful than the ocelli on the feathers of various birds, on the hairy coats of some mammals, on the scales of reptiles and fishes, on the skin of amphibians, on the wings of many Lepidoptera and other insects, they deserve to be especially noticed. An ocellus consists of a spot within a ring of another colour, like the pupil within the iris, but the central spot is often surrounded by additional concentric zones. The ocelli on the tail-coverts of the peac.o.c.k offer a familiar example, as well as those on the wings of the peac.o.c.k-b.u.t.terfly (Vanessa). Mr. Trimen has given me a description of a S. African moth (_Gynanisa Isis_), allied to our Emperor moth, in which a magnificent ocellus occupies nearly the whole surface of each hinder wing; it consists of a black centre, including a semi-transparent crescent-shaped mark, surrounded by successive ochre-yellow, black, ochre-yellow, pink, white, pink, brown, and whitish zones. Although we do not know the steps by which these wonderfully beautiful and complex ornaments have been developed, the process at least with insects has probably been a simple one; for, as Mr. Trimen writes to me, "no characters of mere marking or coloration are so unstable in the Lepidoptera as the ocelli, both in number and size." Mr.

Wallace, who first called my attention to this subject, shewed me a series of specimens of our common meadow-brown b.u.t.terfly (_Hipparchia Janira_) exhibiting numerous gradations from a simple minute black spot to an elegantly-shaded ocellus. In a S. African b.u.t.terfly (_Cyllo Leda_) belonging to the same family, the ocelli are even still more variable.

In some specimens (A, fig. 52) large s.p.a.ces on the upper surface of the wings are coloured black, and include irregular white marks; and from this state a complete gradation can be traced into a tolerably perfect (A) ocellus, and this results from the contraction of the irregular blotches of colour. In another series of specimens a gradation can be followed from excessively minute white dots, surrounded by a scarcely visible black line (B), into perfectly symmetrical and large ocelli (B).[192] In cases like these, the development of a perfect ocellus does not require a long course of variation and selection.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 52. Cyllo leda, Linn., from a drawing by Mr. Trimen, shewing the extreme range of variation in the ocelli.

A. Specimen, from Mauritius, upper B. Specimen, from Java, upper surface of fore-wing. surface of hind-wing.

A. Specimen, from Natal, ditto. B. Specimen, from Mauritius, ditto.]

With birds and many other animals it seems, from the comparison of allied species, to follow, that circular spots are often generated by the breaking up and contraction of stripes. In the Tragopan pheasant faint white lines in the female represent the beautiful white spots in the male;[193] and something of the same kind may be observed in the two s.e.xes of the Argus pheasant. However this may be, appearances strongly favour the belief that, on the one hand, a dark spot is often formed by the colouring-matter being drawn towards a central point from a surrounding zone, which is thus rendered lighter. And, on the other hand, that a white spot is often formed by the colour being driven away from a central point, so that it acc.u.mulates in a surrounding darker zone. In either case an ocellus is the result. The colouring matter seems to be a nearly constant quant.i.ty, but is redistributed, either centripetally or centrifugally. The feathers of the common guinea-fowl offer a good instance of white spots surrounded by darker zones; and wherever the white spots are large and stand near each other, the surrounding dark zones become confluent. In the same wing-feather of the Argus pheasant dark spots may be seen surrounded by a pale zone, and white spots by a dark zone. Thus the formation of an ocellus in its simplest state appears to be a simple affair. By what further steps the more complex ocelli, which are surrounded by many successive zones of colour, have been generated, I will not pretend to say. But bearing in mind the zoned feathers of the mongrel offspring from differently-coloured fowls, and the extraordinary variability of the ocelli in many Lepidoptera, the formation of these beautiful ornaments can hardly be a highly complex process, and probably depends on some slight and graduated change in the nature of the tissues.

_Gradation of Secondary s.e.xual Characters._-Cases of gradation are important for us, as they shew that it is at least possible that highly complex ornaments may have been acquired by small successive steps. In order to discover the actual steps by which the male of any existing bird has acquired his magnificent colours or other ornaments, we ought to behold the long line of his ancient and extinct progenitors; but this is obviously impossible. We may, however, generally gain a clue by comparing all the species of a group, if it be a large one; for some of them will probably retain, at least in a partial manner, traces of their former characters. Instead of entering on tedious details respecting various groups, in which striking instances of gradation could be given, it seems the best plan to take some one or two strongly-characterised cases, for instance that of the peac.o.c.k, in order to discover if any light can thus be thrown on the steps by which this bird has become so splendidly decorated. The peac.o.c.k is chiefly remarkable from the extraordinary length of his tail-coverts; the tail itself not being much elongated. The barbs along nearly the whole length of these feathers stand separate or are decomposed; but this is the case with the feathers of many species, and with some varieties of the domestic fowl and pigeon. The barbs coalesce towards the extremity of the shaft to form the oval disc or ocellus, which is certainly one of the most beautiful objects in the world. This consists of an iridescent, intensely blue, indented centre, surrounded by a rich green zone, and this by a broad coppery-brown zone, and this by five other narrow zones of slightly-different iridescent shades. A trifling character in the disc perhaps deserves notice; the barbs, for a s.p.a.ce along one of the concentric zones are dest.i.tute, to a greater or less degree, of their barbules, so that a part of the disc is surrounded by an almost transparent zone, which gives to it a highly-finished aspect. But I have elsewhere described[194] an exactly a.n.a.logous variation in the hackles of a sub-variety of the game-c.o.c.k, in which the tips, having a metallic l.u.s.tre, "are separated from the lower part of the feather by a symmetrically-shaped transparent zone, composed of the naked portions of the barbs." The lower margin or base of the dark-blue centre of the ocellus is deeply indented on the line of the shaft. The surrounding zones likewise shew traces, as may be seen in the drawing (fig. 53), of indentations, or rather breaks. These indentations are common to the Indian and Javan peac.o.c.ks (_Pavo cristatus_ and _P. muticus_); and they seemed to me to deserve particular attention, as probably connected with the development of the ocellus; but for a long time I could not conjecture their meaning.

If we admit the principle of gradual evolution, there must formerly have existed many species which presented every successive step between the wonderfully elongated tail-coverts of the peac.o.c.k and the short tail coverts of all ordinary birds; and again between the magnificent ocelli of the former, and the simpler ocelli or mere coloured spots of other birds; and so with all the other characters of the peac.o.c.k. Let us look to the allied Gallinaceae for any still-existing gradations. The species and sub-species of Polyplectron inhabit countries adjacent to the native land of the peac.o.c.k; and they so far resemble this bird that they are sometimes called peac.o.c.k-pheasants. I am also informed by Mr. Bartlett that they resemble the peac.o.c.k in their voice and in some of their habits. During the spring the males, as previously described, strut about before the comparatively plain-coloured females, expanding and erecting their tail and wing-feathers, which are ornamented with numerous ocelli. I request the reader to turn back to the drawing (fig.

51, p. 90) of a Polyplectron. In _P. Napoleonis_ the ocelli are confined to the tail, and the back is of a rich metallic blue, in which respects this species approaches the Java peac.o.c.k. _P. Hardwickii_ possesses a peculiar top-knot, somewhat like that of this same kind of peac.o.c.k. The ocelli on the wings and tail of the several species of Polyplectron are either circular or oval, and consist of a beautiful, iridescent, greenish-blue or greenish-purple disc, with a black border. This border in _P. chinquis_ shades into brown which is edged with cream-colour, so that the ocellus is here surrounded with differently, though not brightly, shaded concentric zones. The unusual length of the tail-coverts is another highly remarkable character in Polyplectron; for in some of the species they are half as long, and in others two-thirds of the length of the true tail-feathers. The tail-coverts are ocellated, as in the peac.o.c.k. Thus the several species of Polyplectron manifestly make a graduated approach in the length of their tail-coverts, in the zoning of the ocelli, and in some other characters, to the peac.o.c.k.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 53. Feather of Peac.o.c.k, about two-thirds of natural size, carefully drawn by Mr. Ford. The transparent zone is represented by the outermost white zone, confined to the upper end of the disc.]

Notwithstanding this approach, the first species of Polyplectron which I happened to examine almost made me give up the search; for I found not only that the true tail-feathers, which in the peac.o.c.k are quite plain, were ornamented with ocelli, but that the ocelli on all the feathers differed fundamentally from those of the peac.o.c.k, in there being two on the same feather, (fig. 54), one on each side of the shaft. Hence I concluded that the early progenitors of the peac.o.c.k could not have resembled in any degree a Polyplectron. But on continuing my search, I observed that in some of the species the two ocelli stood very near each other; that in the tail-feathers of _P. Hardwickii_ they touched each other; and, finally, that in the tail-coverts of this same species as well as of _P. malaccense_ (fig. 55) they were actually confluent. As the central part alone is confluent, an indentation is left at both the upper and lower ends; and the surrounding coloured zones are likewise indented.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 54. Part of a tail-covert of Polyplectron chinquis, with two oval ocelli of nat. size.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 55. Part of a tail-covert of Polyplectron malaccense, with the two oval ocelli, partially confluent, of nat.

size.]

A single ocellus is thus formed on each tail-covert, though still plainly betraying its double origin. These confluent ocelli differ from the single ocelli of the peac.o.c.k in having an indentation at both ends, instead of at the lower or basal end alone. The explanation, however, of this difference is not difficult; in some species of Polyplectron the two oval ocelli on the same feather stand parallel to each other; in other species (as in _P. chinquis_) they converge towards one end; now the partial confluence of two convergent ocelli would manifestly leave a much deeper indentation at the divergent than at the convergent end. It is also manifest that if the convergence were strongly p.r.o.nounced and the confluence complete, the indentation at the convergent end would tend to be quite obliterated.

The tail-feathers in both species of peac.o.c.k are entirely dest.i.tute of ocelli, and this apparently is related to their being covered up and concealed by the long tail-coverts. In this respect they differ remarkably from the tail-feathers of Polyplectron, which in most of the species are ornamented with larger ocelli than those on the tail-coverts. Hence I was led carefully to examine the tail-feathers of the several species of Polyplectron in order to discover whether the ocelli in any of them shewed any tendency to disappear, and, to my great satisfaction, I was successful. The central tail-feathers of _P.

Napoleonis_ have the two ocelli on each side of the shaft perfectly developed; but the inner ocellus becomes less and less conspicuous on the more exterior tail-feathers, until a mere shadow or rudimentary vestige is left on the inner side of the outermost feather. Again, in _P. malaccense_, the ocelli on the tail-coverts are, as we have seen, confluent; and these feathers are of unusual length, being two-thirds of the length of the tail-feathers, so that in both these respects they resemble the tail-coverts of the peac.o.c.k. Now in this species the two central tail-feathers alone are ornamented, each with two brightly-coloured ocelli, the ocelli having completely disappeared from the inner sides of all the other tail-feathers. Consequently the tail-coverts and tail-feathers of this species of Polyplectron make a near approach in structure and ornamentation to the corresponding feathers of the peac.o.c.k.

As far, then, as the principle of gradation throws light on the steps by which the magnificent train of the peac.o.c.k has been acquired, hardly anything more is needed. We may picture to ourselves a progenitor of the peac.o.c.k in an almost exactly intermediate condition between the existing peac.o.c.k, with his enormously elongated tail-coverts, ornamented with single ocelli, and an ordinary gallinaceous bird with short tail-coverts, merely spotted with some colour; and we shall then see in our mind's eye, a bird possessing tail-coverts, capable of erection and expansion, ornamented with two partially confluent ocelli, and long enough almost to conceal the tail-feathers,-the latter having already partially lost their ocelli; we shall see in short, a Polyplectron. The indentation of the central disc and surrounding zones of the ocellus in both species of peac.o.c.k, seems to me to speak plainly in favour of this view; and this structure is otherwise inexplicable. The males of Polyplectron are no doubt very beautiful birds, but their beauty, when viewed from a little distance, cannot be compared, as I formerly saw in the Zoological Gardens, with that of the peac.o.c.k. Many female progenitors of the peac.o.c.k must, during a long line of descent, have appreciated this superiority; for they have unconsciously, by the continued preference of the most beautiful males, rendered the peac.o.c.k the most splendid of living birds.

_Argus pheasant._-Another excellent case for investigation is offered by the ocelli on the wing-feathers of the Argus pheasant, which are shaded in so wonderful a manner as to resemble b.a.l.l.s lying within sockets, and which consequently differ from ordinary ocelli. No one, I presume, will attribute the shading, which has excited the admiration of many experienced artists, to chance-to the fortuitous concourse of atoms of colouring matter. That these ornaments should have been formed through the selection of many successive variations, not one of which was originally intended to produce the ball-and-socket effect, seems as incredible, as that one of Raphael's Madonnas should have been formed by the selection of chance daubs of paint made by a long succession of young artists, not one of whom intended at first to draw the human figure. In order to discover how the ocelli have been developed, we cannot look to a long line of progenitors, nor to various closely-allied forms, for such do not now exist. But fortunately the several feathers on the wing suffice to give us a clue to the problem, and they prove to demonstration that a gradation is at least possible from a mere spot to a finished ball-and-socket ocellus.

The wing-feathers, bearing the ocelli, are covered with dark stripes or rows of dark spots, each stripe or row running obliquely down the outer side of the shaft to an ocellus. The spots are generally elongated in a transverse line to the row in which they stand. They often become confluent, either in the line of the row-and then they form a longitudinal stripe-or transversely, that is, with the spots in the adjoining rows, and then they form transverse stripes. A spot sometimes breaks up into smaller spots, which still stand in their proper places.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 56. Part of Secondary wing-feather of Argus pheasant, shewing two, _a_ and _b_, perfect ocelli. A, B, C, &c., dark stripes running obliquely down, each to an ocellus.

(Much of the web on both sides, especially to the left of the shaft, has been cut off.)]

It will be convenient first to describe a perfect ball-and-socket ocellus. This consists of an intensely black circular ring, surrounding a s.p.a.ce shaded so as exactly to resemble a ball. The figure here given has been admirably drawn by Mr. Ford, and engraved, but a woodcut cannot exhibit the exquisite shading of the original. The ring is almost always slightly broken or interrupted (see fig. 56) at a point in the upper half, a little to the right of and above the white shade on the enclosed ball; it is also sometimes broken towards the base on the right hand.

These little breaks have an important meaning. The ring is always much thickened, with the edges ill-defined towards the left-hand upper corner the feather being held erect, in the position in which it is here drawn. Beneath this thickened part there is on the surface of the ball an oblique almost pure-white mark, which shades off downwards into a pale-leaden hue, and this into yellowish and brown tints, which insensibly become darker and darker towards the lower part of the ball.

It is this shading which gives so admirably the effect of light s.h.i.+ning on a convex surface. If one of the b.a.l.l.s be examined, it will be seen that the lower part is of a browner tint and is indistinctly separated by a curved oblique line from the upper part, which is yellower and more leaden; this oblique line runs at right angles to the longer axis of the white patch of light, and indeed of all the shading; but this difference in the tints, which cannot of course be shewn in the woodcut, does not in the least interfere with the perfect shading of the ball.[195] It should be particularly observed that each ocellus stands in obvious connection with a dark stripe, or row of dark spots, for both occur indifferently on the same feather. Thus in fig. 56 stripe A runs to ocellus _a_; B runs to ocellus _b_; stripe C is broken in the upper part, and runs down to the next succeeding ocellus, not represented in the woodcut; D to the next lower one, and so with the stripes E and F.

Lastly, the several ocelli are separated from each other by a pale surface bearing irregular black marks.