English Literature Part 29

5. _Swift_. What is the general character of Swift's work? Name his chief satires. What is there to copy in his style? Does he ever strive for ornament or effect in writing? Compare Swift's _Gulliver's Travels_ with Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_, in style, purpose of writing, and interest. What resemblances do you find in these two contemporary writers? Can you explain the continued popularity of _Gulliver's Travels_?

6. _Addison and Steele_. What great work did Addison and Steele do for literature? Make a brief comparison between these two men, having in mind their purpose, humor, knowledge of life, and human sympathy, as shown, for instance, in No. 112 and No. 2 of the Spectator Essays. Compare their humor with that of Swift. How is their work a preparation for the novel?

7. _Johnson_. For what is Dr. Johnson famous in literature? Can you explain his great influence? Compare his style with that of Swift or Defoe. What are the remarkable elements in Boswell's _Life of Johnson_? Write a description of an imaginary meeting of Johnson, Goldsmith, and Boswell in a coffeehouse.

8. _Burke_. For what is Burke remarkable? What great objects influenced him in the three periods of his life? Why has he been called a romantic poet who speaks in prose? Compare his use of imagery with that of other writers of the period. What is there to copy and what is there to avoid in his style? Can you trace the influence of Burke's American speeches on later English politics? What similarities do you find between Burke and Milton, as revealed in their prose works?

9. _Gibbon_. For what is Gibbon "worthy to be remembered"? Why does he mark an epoch in historical writing? What is meant by the scientific method of writing history? Compare Gibbon's style with that of Johnson. Contrast it with that of Swift, and also with that of some modern historian, Parkman, for example.

10. What is meant by the term "romanticism?" What are its chief characteristics? How does it differ from cla.s.sicism? Ill.u.s.trate the meaning from the work of Gray, Cowper, or Burns. Can you explain the prevalence of melancholy in romanticism?

11. _Gray_. What are the chief works of Gray? Can you explain the continued popularity of his "Elegy"? What romantic elements are found in his poetry?

What resemblances and what differences do you find in the works of Gray and of Goldsmith?

12. _Goldsmith_. Tell the story of Goldsmith's life. What are his chief works? Show from _The Deserted Village_ the romantic and the so-called cla.s.sic elements in his work. What great work did he do for the early novel, in _The Vicar of Wakefield_? Can you explain the popularity of _She Stoops to Conquer_? Name some of Goldsmith's characters who have found a permanent place in our literature. What personal reminiscences have you noted in _The Traveller_, _The Deserted Village_, and _She Stoops to Conquer_?

13. _Cowper_. Describe Cowper's _The Task_. How does it show the romantic spirit? Give pa.s.sages from "John Gilpin" to ill.u.s.trate Cowper's humor.

14. _Burns_. Tell the story of Burns's life. Some one has said, "The measure of a man's sin is the difference between what he is and what he might be." Comment upon this, with reference to Burns. What is the general character of his poetry? Why is he called the poet of common men? What subjects does he choose for his poetry? Compare him, in this respect, with Pope. What elements in the poet's character are revealed in such poems as "To a Mouse" and "To a Mountain Daisy"? How do Burns and Gray regard nature? What poems show his sympathy with the French Revolution, and with democracy? Read "The Cotter's Sat.u.r.day Night," and explain its enduring interest. Can you explain the secret of Burns's great popularity?

15. _Blake_. What are the characteristics of Blake's poetry? Can you explain why Blake, though the greatest poetic genius of the age, is so little appreciated?

16. _Percy_. In what respect did Percy's _Reliques_ influence the romantic movement? What are the defects in his collection of ballads? Can you explain why such a crude poem as "Chevy Chase" should be popular with an age that delighted in Pope's "Essay on Man"?

17. _Macpherson_. What is meant by Macpherson's "Ossian"? Can you account for the remarkable success of the Ossianic forgeries?

18. _Chatterton_. Tell the story of Chatterton and the Rowley Poems. Read Chatterton's "Bristowe Tragedie," and compare it, in style and interest, with the old ballads, like "The Battle of Otterburn" or "The Hunting of the Cheviot" (all in Manly's _English Poetry_).

19. _The First Novelists_. What is meant by the modern novel? How does it differ from the early romance and from the adventure story? What are some of the precursors of the novel? What was the purpose of stories modeled after _Don Quixote_? What is the significance of _Pamela_? What elements did Fielding add to the novel? What good work did Goldsmith's _Vicar of Wakefield_ accomplish? Compare Goldsmith, in this respect, with Steele and Addison.

CHRONOLOGY _End of Seventeenth and the Eighteenth Century_ ============================================================================ HISTORY | LITERATURE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1689. William and Mary | 1683-1719. Defoe's early writings Bill of Rights. | Toleration Act | | 1695. Press made free 1700(?) Beginning of London clubs | 1702. Anne (d. 1714) | War of Spanish Succession | | 1702. First daily newspaper 1704. Battle of Blenheim | 1704. Addison's The Campaign | Swift's Tale of a Tub 1707. Union of England and Scotland | | 1709. The Tatler | Johnson born (d. 1784) | 1710-1713. Swift in London. Journal | to Stella | 1711. The Spectator | 1712. Pope's Rape of the Lock 1714. George I (d. 1727) | | 1719. Robinson Crusoe 1721. Cabinet government, Walpole | first prime minister | | 1726. Gulliver's Travels | 1726-1730. Thomson's The Seasons 1727. George II (d. 1760) | | 1732-1734. Essay on Man 1738. Rise of Methodism | | 1740. Richardson's Pamela 1740. War of Austrian Succession | | 1742. Fielding's Joesph Andrews 1746. Jacobite Rebellion | | 1749. Fielding's Tom Jones | 1750-1752. Johnson's The Rambler 1750-1757. Conquest of India | 1751. Gray's Elegy | 1755. Johnson's Dictionary 1756. War with France | 1759. Wolf at Quebec | 1760. George III (d. 1820) | 1760-1767. Sterne's Tristram Shandy | 1764. Johnson's Literary Club 1765. Stamp Act | 1765. Percy's Reliques | 1766. Goldsmith's Vicar of | Wakefield | | 1770. Goldsmith's Deserted Village | 1771. Beginning of great newspapers 1773. Boston Tea Party | 1774. Howard's prison reforms | 1774-1775. Burke's American speeches 1775. American Revolution | 1776-1788. Gibbon's Rome 1776. Declaration of Independence | 1779. Cowper's Olney Hymns | 1779-81. Johnson's Lives of the Poets 1783. Treaty of Paris | 1783. Blake's Poetical Sketches | 1785. Cowper's The Task | The London Times 1786. Trial of Warren Hastings | | 1786. Burns's first poems (the | Kilmarnock Burns) | Burke's Warren Hastings 1789-1799. French Revolution | | 1790. Burke's French Revolution | 1791. Boswell's Life of Johnson 1793. War with France | ============================================================================

CHAPTER X

THE AGE OF ROMANTICISM (1800-1850)

THE SECOND CREATIVE PERIOD OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

The first half of the nineteenth century records the triumph of Romanticism in literature and of democracy in government; and the two movements are so closely a.s.sociated, in so many nations and in so many periods of history, that one must wonder if there be not some relation of cause and effect between them. Just as we understand the tremendous energizing influence of Puritanism in the matter of English liberty by remembering that the common people had begun to read, and that their book was the Bible, so we may understand this age of popular government by remembering that the chief subject of romantic literature was the essential n.o.bleness of common men and the value of the individual. As we read now that brief portion of history which lies between the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the English Reform Bill of 1832, we are in the presence of such mighty political upheavals that "the age of revolution" is the only name by which we can adequately characterize it. Its great historic movements become intelligible only when we read what was written in this period; for the French Revolution and the American commonwealth, as well as the establishment of a true democracy in England by the Reform Bill, were the inevitable results of ideas which literature had spread rapidly through the civilized world. Liberty is fundamentally an ideal; and that ideal--beautiful, inspiring, compelling, as a loved banner in the wind--was kept steadily before men's minds by a mult.i.tude of books and pamphlets as far apart as Burns's _Poems_ and Thomas Paine's _Rights of Man_,--all read eagerly by the common people, all proclaiming the dignity of common life, and all uttering the same pa.s.sionate cry against every form of cla.s.s or caste oppression.

First the dream, the ideal in some human soul; then the written word which proclaims it, and impresses other minds with its truth and beauty; then the united and determined effort of men to make the dream a reality,--that seems to be a fair estimate of the part that literature plays, even in our political progress.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY. The period we are considering begins in the latter half of the reign of George III and ends with the accession of Victoria in 1837.

When on a foggy morning in November, 1783, King George entered the House of Lords and in a trembling voice recognized the independence of the United States of America, he unconsciously proclaimed the triumph of that free government by free men which had been the ideal of English literature for more than a thousand years; though it was not till 1832, when the Reform Bill became the law of the land, that England herself learned the lesson taught her by America, and became the democracy of which her writers had always dreamed.

The half century between these two events is one of great turmoil, yet of steady advance in every department of English life. The storm center of the political unrest was the French Revolution, that frightful uprising which proclaimed the natural rights of man and the abolition of cla.s.s distinctions. Its effect on the whole civilized world is beyond computation. Patriotic clubs and societies multiplied in England, all a.s.serting the doctrine of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, the watchwords of the Revolution. Young England, led by Pitt the younger, hailed the new French republic and offered it friends.h.i.+p; old England, which pardons no revolutions but her own, looked with horror on the turmoil in France and, misled by Burke and the n.o.bles of the realm, forced the two nations into war. Even Pitt saw a blessing in this at first; because the sudden zeal for fighting a foreign nation--which by some horrible perversion is generally called patriotism--might turn men's thoughts from their own to their neighbors' affairs, and so prevent a threatened revolution at home.

The causes of this threatened revolution were not political but economic.

By her invention in steel and machinery, and by her monopoly of the carrying trade, England had become the workshop of the world. Her wealth had increased beyond her wildest dreams; but the unequal distribution of that wealth was a spectacle to make angels weep. The invention of machinery at first threw thousands of skilled hand workers out of employment; in order to protect a few agriculturists, heavy duties were imposed on corn and wheat, and bread rose to famine prices just when laboring men had the least money to pay for it. There followed a curious spectacle. While England increased in wealth, and spent vast sums to support her army and subsidize her allies in Europe, and while n.o.bles, landowners, manufacturers, and merchants lived in increasing luxury, a mult.i.tude of skilled laborers were clamoring for work. Fathers sent their wives and little children into the mines and factories, where sixteen hours' labor would hardly pay for the daily bread; and in every large city were riotous mobs made up chiefly of hungry men and women. It was this unbearable economic condition, and not any political theory, as Burke supposed, which occasioned the danger of another English revolution.

It is only when we remember these conditions that we can understand two books, Adam Smith's _Wealth of Nations_ and Thomas Paine's _Rights of Man_, which can hardly be considered as literature, but which exercised an enormous influence in England. Smith was a Scottish thinker, who wrote to uphold the doctrine that labor is the only source of a nation's wealth, and that any attempt to force labor into unnatural channels, or to prevent it by protective duties from freely obtaining the raw materials for its industry, is unjust and destructive. Paine was a curious combination of Jekyll and Hyde, shallow and untrustworthy personally, but with a pa.s.sionate devotion to popular liberty. His _Rights of Man_ published in London in 1791, was like one of Burns's lyric outcries against inst.i.tutions which oppressed humanity. Coming so soon after the destruction of the Bastille, it added fuel to the flames kindled in England by the French Revolution. The author was driven out of the country, on the curious ground that he endangered the English const.i.tution, but not until his book had gained a wide sale and influence.

All these dangers, real and imaginary, pa.s.sed away when England turned from the affairs of France to remedy her own economic conditions. The long Continental war came to an end with Napoleon's overthrow at Waterloo, in 1815; and England, having gained enormously in prestige abroad, now turned to the work of reform at home. The destruction of the African slave trade; the mitigation of horribly unjust laws, which included poor debtors and petty criminals in the same cla.s.s; the prevention of child labor; the freedom of the press; the extension of manhood suffrage; the abolition of restrictions against Catholics in Parliament; the establishment of hundreds of popular schools, under the leaders.h.i.+p of Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster,--these are but a few of the reforms which mark the progress of civilization in a single half century. When England, in 1833, proclaimed the emanc.i.p.ation of all slaves in all her colonies, she unconsciously proclaimed her final emanc.i.p.ation from barbarism.

LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AGE. It is intensely interesting to note how literature at first reflected the political turmoil of the age; and then, when the turmoil was over and England began her mighty work of reform, how literature suddenly developed a new creative spirit, which shows itself in the poetry of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Sh.e.l.ley, Keats, and in the prose of Scott, Jane Austen, Lamb, and De Quincey,--a wonderful group of writers, whose patriotic enthusiasm suggests the Elizabethan days, and whose genius has caused their age to be known as the second creative period of our literature. Thus in the early days, when old inst.i.tutions seemed crumbling with the Bastille, Coleridge and Southey formed their youthful scheme of a "Pantisocracy on the banks of the Susquehanna,"--an ideal commonwealth, in which the principles of More's _Utopia_ should be put in practice. Even Wordsworth, fired with political enthusiasm, could write,

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven.

The essence of Romanticism was, it must be remembered, that literature must reflect all that is spontaneous and unaffected in nature and in man, and be free to follow its own fancy in its own way. We have already noted this characteristic in the work of the Elizabethan dramatists, who followed their own genius in opposition to all the laws of the critics. In Coleridge we see this independence expressed in "Kubla Khan" and "The Ancient Mariner," two dream pictures, one of the populous Orient, the other of the lonely sea. In Wordsworth this literary independence led him inward to the heart of common things. Following his own instinct, as Shakespeare does, he too

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything.

And so, more than any other writer of the age, he invests the common life of nature, and the souls of common men and women, with glorious significance. These two poets, Coleridge and Wordsworth, best represent the romantic genius of the age in which they lived, though Scott had a greater literary reputation, and Byron and Sh.e.l.ley had larger audiences.

The second characteristic of this age is that it is emphatically an age of poetry. The previous century, with its practical outlook on life, was largely one of prose; but now, as in the Elizabethan Age, the young enthusiasts turned as naturally to poetry as a happy man to singing. The glory of the age is in the poetry of Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Sh.e.l.ley, Keats, Moore, and Southey. Of its prose works, those of Scott alone have attained a very wide reading, though the essays of Charles Lamb and the novels of Jane Austen have slowly won for their authors a secure place in the history of our literature. Coleridge and Southey (who with Wordsworth form the trio of so-called Lake Poets) wrote far more prose than poetry; and Southey's prose is much better than his verse. It was characteristic of the spirit of this age, so different from our own, that Southey could say that, in order to earn money, he wrote in verse "what would otherwise have been better written in prose."

It was during this period that woman a.s.sumed, for the first time, an important place in our literature. Probably the chief reason for this interesting phenomenon lies in the fact that woman was for the first time given some slight chance of education, of entering into the intellectual life of the race; and as is always the case when woman is given anything like a fair opportunity she responded magnificently. A secondary reason may be found in the nature of the age itself, which was intensely emotional.

The French Revolution stirred all Europe to its depths, and during the following half century every great movement in literature, as in politics and religion, was characterized by strong emotion; which is all the more noticeable by contrast with the cold, formal, satiric spirit of the early eighteenth century. As woman is naturally more emotional than man, it may well be that the spirit of this emotional age attracted her, and gave her the opportunity to express herself in literature.

As all strong emotions tend to extremes, the age produced a new type of novel which seems rather hysterical now, but which in its own day delighted mult.i.tudes of readers whose nerves were somewhat excited, and who reveled in "bogey" stories of supernatural terror. Mrs. Anne Radcliffe (1764-1823) was one of the most successful writers of this school of exaggerated romance. Her novels, with their azure-eyed heroines, haunted castles, trapdoors, bandits, abductions, rescues in the nick of time, and a general medley of overwrought joys and horrors,[219] were immensely popular, not only with the crowd of novel readers, but also with men of unquestioned literary genius, like Scott and Byron.

In marked contrast to these extravagant stories is the enduring work of Jane Austen, with her charming descriptions of everyday life, and of Maria Edgeworth, whose wonderful pictures of Irish life suggested to Walter Scott the idea of writing his Scottish romances. Two other women who attained a more or less lasting fame were Hannah More, poet, dramatist, and novelist, and Jane Porter, whose _Scottish Chiefs_ and _Thaddeus of Warsaw_ are still in demand in our libraries. Beside these were f.a.n.n.y Burney (Madame D'Arblay) and several other writers whose works, in the early part of the nineteenth century, raised woman to the high place in literature which she has ever since maintained.

In this age literary criticism became firmly established by the appearance of such magazines as the _Edinburgh Review_ (18O2), _The Quarterly Review_ (1808), _Blackwood's Magazine_ (1817), the _Westminster Review_ (1824), _The Spectator_ (1828), _The Athenaeum_ (1828), and _Fraser's Magazine_ (1830). These magazines, edited by such men as Francis Jeffrey, John Wilson (who is known to us as Christopher North), and John Gibson Lockhart, who gave us the _Life of Scott_, exercised an immense influence on all subsequent literature. At first their criticisms were largely destructive, as when Jeffrey hammered Scott, Wordsworth, and Byron most unmercifully; and Lockhart could find no good in either Keats or Tennyson; but with added wisdom, criticism a.s.sumed its true function of construction. And when these magazines began to seek and to publish the works of unknown writers, like Hazlitt, Lamb, and Leigh Hunt, they discovered the chief mission of the modern magazine, which is to give every writer of ability the opportunity to make his work known to the world.

I. THE POETS OF ROMANTICISM

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (1770-1850)

It was in 1797 that the new romantic movement in our literature a.s.sumed definite form. Wordsworth and Coleridge retired to the Quantock Hills, Somerset, and there formed the deliberate purpose to make literature "adapted to interest mankind permanently," which, they declared, cla.s.sic poetry could never do. Helping the two poets was Wordsworth's sister Dorothy, with a woman's love for flowers and all beautiful things; and a woman's divine sympathy for human life even in its lowliest forms. Though a silent partner, she furnished perhaps the largest share of the inspiration which resulted in the famous _Lyrical Ballads_ of 1798. In their partners.h.i.+p Coleridge was to take up the "supernatural, or at least romantic"; while Wordsworth was "to give the charm of novelty to things of everyday ... by awakening the mind's attention from the lethargy of custom and directing it to the loveliness and the wonders of the world before us."

The whole spirit of their work is reflected in two poems of this remarkable little volume, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," which is Coleridge's masterpiece, and "Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey," which expresses Wordsworth's poetical creed, and which is one of the n.o.blest and most significant of our poems. That the _Lyrical Ballads_ attracted no attention,[220] and was practically ignored by a public that would soon go into raptures over Byron's _Childe Harold_ and _Don Juan_, is of small consequence. Many men will hurry a mile to see skyrockets, who never notice Orion and the Pleiades from their own doorstep. Had Wordsworth and Coleridge written only this one little book, they would still be among the representative writers of an age that proclaimed the final triumph of Romanticism.

LIFE OF WORDSWORTH. To understand the life of him who, in Tennyson's words, "uttered nothing base," it is well to read first _The Prelude_, which records the impressions made upon Wordsworth's mind from his earliest recollection until his full manhood, in 1805, when the poem was completed.[221] Outwardly his long and uneventful life divides itself naturally into four periods: (1) his childhood and youth, in the c.u.mberland Hills, from 1770 to 1787; (2) a period of uncertainty, of storm and stress, including his university life at Cambridge, his travels abroad, and his revolutionary experience, from 1787 to 1797; (3) a short but significant period of finding himself and his work, from 1797 to 1799; (4) a long period of retirement in the northern lake region, where he was born, and where for a full half century he lived so close to nature that her influence is reflected in all his poetry. When one has outlined these four periods he has told almost all that can be told of a life which is marked, not by events, but largely by spiritual experiences.

Wordsworth was born in 1770 at c.o.c.kermouth, c.u.mberland, where the Derwent,

Fairest of all rivers, loved To blend his murmurs with my nurse's song, And from his alder shades and rocky falls, And from his fords and shallows, sent a voice That flowed along my dreams.

It is almost a shock to one who knows Wordsworth only by his calm and n.o.ble poetry to read that he was of a moody and violent temper, and that his mother despaired of him alone among her five children. She died when he was but eight years old, but not till she had exerted an influence which lasted all his life, so that he could remember her as "the heart of all our learnings and our loves." The father died some six years later, and the orphan was taken in charge by relatives, who sent him to school at Hawkshead, in the beautiful lake region. Here, apparently, the unroofed school of nature attracted him more than the discipline of the cla.s.sics, and he learned more eagerly from the flowers and hills and stars than from his books; but one must read Wordsworth's own record, in _The Prelude_, to appreciate this. Three things in this poem must impress even the casual reader: first, Wordsworth loves to be alone, and is never lonely, with nature; second, like every other child who spends much time alone in the woods and fields, he feels the presence of some living spirit, real though unseen, and companionable though silent; third, his impressions are exactly like our own, and delightfully familiar. When he tells of the long summer day spent in swimming, basking in the sun, and questing over the hills; or of the winter night when, on his skates, he chased the reflection of a star in the black ice; or of his exploring the lake in a boat, and getting suddenly frightened when the world grew big and strange,--in all this he is simply recalling a mult.i.tude of our own vague, happy memories of childhood.

He goes out into the woods at night to tend his woodc.o.c.k snares; he runs across another boy's snares, follows them, finds a woodc.o.c.k caught, takes it, hurries away through the night. And then,