Higher Lessons in English Part 75

being now regularly used instead of the more logical perfect tense forms, Spring _is come_, Birds _are flown_. (_Is come, are flown_, etc. must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the pa.s.sive voice.) [Footnote: A peculiar use of _had_ is found in the expressions _had rather go_ and _had better go_, condemned by many grammarians who suppose _had_ to be here used incorrectly for _would_ or _should_. Of these expressions the "Standard Dictionary," an authority worthy of our attention, says:--

"Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel Johnson, the critics insisting upon the subst.i.tution of _would_ or _should_, as the case may demand, for _had_; but _had rather_ and _had better_ are thoroughly established English, idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I _would rather_ not go' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element of choice, or will, in the matter; but in all ordinary cases 'I _had rather_ not go' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood.

"If for 'You _had better_ stay at home' we subst.i.tute 'You _should better_ stay at home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place to that of obligation."

In the a.n.a.lysis of "_I had rather go_," _had_ is the predicate verb, the infinitive _go_ is the object complement, and the adjective _rather_ completes _had_ and belongs to _go_, i.e., is objective complement. _Had_ (= _should hold_ or _regard_) is treated as a past subjunctive. _Rather_ is the comparative of the old adjective _rathe_ = _early_, from which comes the idea of preference. The expression means, "I should hold going preferable."

The expressions "You _had better_ stay," "I _had as lief_ not be," are similar in construction to "I _had rather_ go." "I _had sooner_ go" is condemned by grammarians because _sooner_ is never an adjective. If _sooner_ is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of _had_. The expression equals, "I should more willingly have going."]

Compounds of more than two words may be a.n.a.lyzed thus: +May have been written+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have been+ and the participle +written; may have been+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have+ and the participle +been+; and +may have+ is composed of the auxiliary +may+ and the infinitive +have+. _May_ is the a.s.serting word--the first auxiliary is always the a.s.serting word.

+Direction+.--_Study what has been said above and a.n.a.lyze the following verbal forms, distinguis.h.i.+ng carefully between participles that may be considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attribute complements_:--

1. I may be mistaken.

2. The farm was sold.

3. I shall be contented.

4. Has it been decided?

5. You should have been working.

6. The danger might have been avoided.

7. He may have been tired and sleepy.

8. She is singing.

9. I shall be satisfied.

10. The rule has not been observed.

11. Stars have disappeared.

12. Times will surely change.

TENSE FORMS--MEANING.

The +Present Tense+ is used to express (1) what is actually present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what frequently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place in the future, and it is used (5) in describing past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking.

+Examples+.--I _hear_ a voice (action as present). The sun _gives_ light (true at all times). He _writes_ for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips _speaks_ in Boston to-morrow night (future). He _mounts_ the scaffold; the executioners _approach_ to bind him; he _struggles, resists_, etc. (past events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden _are_ scattered in fight; they _rally_, they _bleed_, etc. (future events now seen in vision).

The +Past Tense+ may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time.

+Examples+.--The birds _sang_ (simply past action). He _wrote_ for the newspapers (past habit). If I _should go_, you _would miss_ me (future events). If he _were_ here, he _would enjoy_ this (refers to present time).

The +Future Tense+ may express (1) simply future action or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time.

+Examples+.--I _shall write_ soon (simply future action). He _will sit_ there by the hour (indefinite in time).

The +Present Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed in present time (_i.e._, a period of time--an hour, a year, an age--of which the present forms a part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a future period.

+Examples+.--Homer _has written_ poems (the period of time affected by this completed action embraces the present). When I _have finished_ this, you _shall have_ it (action to be completed in a future period).

The +Past Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a conditional or hypothetical clause it may express past time.

+Examples+.--I _had seen_ him when I met you (action completed at a specified past time). If I _had had_ time, I _should have written_ (I _had_ not time--I _did_ not _write_.)

The +Future Perfect Tense+ expresses action to be completed at some specified future time.

+Example+.--I _shall have seen_ him by to-morrow noon.

+Direction+.--_Study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the following verbs_:--

1. I go to the city to-morrow.

2. The village master taught his little school.

3. Plato reasons well.

4. A triangle has three sides.

5. To-morrow is the day appointed.

6. Moses has told many important facts.

7. The s.h.i.+p sails next week.

8. She sings well.

9. Cicero has written orations.

10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe.

11. You may hear when the next mail arrives, 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble.

13. He will occasionally lose his temper.

14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years.

15. If I were you, I would try that.

16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it.

17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel.

+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+. _Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away._

[Transcriber's Note: The following two tables have been split to fit within Project Gutenberg line-width requirements. The first column of each table has been repeated for easier reference.]

|CLa.s.sIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS.

---------|-----------------|---------------------------------------------| Sentence.|Cla.s.s. |Sub-C. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| Gen. |Case.| | | | | | | | | | | Oh! |Int. | | | | | | | | | it |Pro. |Per. | | | |Sing.| ad.| Neut. |Nom. | has |Vb. |Ir., Tr. | Act. | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | a |Adj. |Def. | | | | | | | | voice |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | " |Obj. | for |Prep. | | | | | | | | | those |Pro. |Adj. | | | |Plu. | " |M. or F.| " | who |Pro. |Rel. | | | | " | " | " |Nom. | on |Prep. | | | | | | | | | their |Pro. |Per. | | | | " | " | " |Pos. | sick |Adj. |Des. | | | | | | | | beds |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | Neut. |Obj. | lie |Vb. |Ir.,Int. | -- | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | and |Conj. |Co-or. | | | | | | | | waste |Vb. |Reg.,Int.| -- | " | " | " | " | | | away. |Adv. |Place. | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------

| | SYNTAX.

---------|-------|----------------------------------- Sentence.|Deg. of| | Comp.| Oh! | |Independent.

it | |Subject of _has_.

has | |Predicate of _it_.

a | -- |Modifier of _voice_.

voice | |Object comp of _has_.

for | |Shows Rel. of _has_ to _those_.

those | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase.

who | |Subject of _lie_ and _waste_.

on | |Shows Rel. of _lie_ to _beds_.

their | |Possessive Mod. of _beds_.

sick | Pos. |Modifier of _beds_.

beds | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase.

lie | |Predicate of _who_.

and | |Connects _lie_ and _waste_.

waste | |Predicate of _who_.

away. | -- |Modifier of _waste_.

TO THE TEACHER.--For further exercises in parsing the verb and for exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on a.n.a.lysis.