History of England from the fall of Wolsey to the death of Elizabeth Volume III Part 4

[Sidenote: Obligation of the magistrates to maintain truth.]

[Sidenote: Peculiar disposition of the king.]

Thus were the two parties face to face, and the king had either to make his choice between them, or with Cromwell's help to coerce them both into moderation. The modern reader may imagine that he should have left both alone, have allowed opinion to correct opinion, and truth to win its own victory. But this "remedy for controversy," so easy now, was then impossible,--it would have been rejected equally by the governors and the governed. Deep in the hearts of all Englishmen in that century lay the conviction, that it was the duty of the magistrate to maintain truth, as well as to execute justice. Toleration was neither understood nor desired. The protestants clamoured against persecution, not because it was persecution, but because truth was persecuted by falsehood; and, however furiously the hostile factions exclaimed each that the truth was with them and the falsehood with their enemies, neither the one nor the other disputed the obligation of the ruling powers to support the truth in itself. So close the religious convictions of men lay to their hearts and pa.s.sions, that, if opinion had been left alone in their own hands, they would themselves have fought the battle of their beliefs with sharper weapons than argument. Religion to them was a thing to die for, or it was nothing. It was therefore fortunate, most fortunate, for the peace of England, that it possessed in the king a person whose mind, to a certain extent, sympathized with both parties; to whom both, so long as they were moderate, appeared to be right; to whom the extravagances of both were wrong and to be repressed. Protestant and Anglican alike might look to him with confidence--alike were obliged to fear him; neither could take him for their enemy, neither for their partisan. He possessed the peculiarity which has always distinguished practically effective men, of being advanced, as it is called, only slightly beyond his contemporaries. The giddy or imaginative genius soars on its own wings, it may be to cleave its course into the sunlight, and be the wonder of after times, but more often to fall like Icarus. The man of working ability tempers his judgment by the opinion of others. He leads his age--he bears the brunt of the battle--he wins the victory; but the motive force which bears him forward is not in himself, but in the great tidal wave of human progress. He is the guide of a great movement, not the creator of it; and he represents in his own person the highest average wisdom, combined necessarily in some measure with the mistakes and prejudices of the period to which he belongs.[67]

[Sidenote: He draws the first articles of religion.]

On receiving the list of grievances, the king, then three weeks married to Jane Seymour, in the first enjoyment, as some historians require us to believe, of a guilty pleasure purchased by an infamous murder, drew up with his own hand,[68] and submitted to the two houses of convocation, a body of articles, interesting as throwing light upon his state of mind, and of deeper moment as the first authoritative statement of doctrine in the Anglican church.

By the duties of his princely office, he said, he held himself obliged, not only to see G.o.d's Word and commandment sincerely believed and reverently kept and observed, but to prevent also, as far as possible, contentions and differences of opinion. To his regret he was informed that there was no such concord in the realm as he desired, but violent disagreement, not only in matters of usage and ceremony, but in the essentials of the Christian faith. To avoid the dangerous unquietness, therefore, which might, perhaps, ensue, and also the great peril to the souls of his subjects, he had arrived at the following resolutions, to which he required and commanded obedience.

[Sidenote: On the three creeds.]

I. As concerning the faith, all things were to be held and defended as true which were comprehended in the whole body and canon of the Bible, and in the three creeds or symbols. The creeds, as well as the Scripture, were to be received as the most holy, most sure and infallible words of G.o.d, and as such, "neither to be altered nor convelled" by any contrary opinion. Whoever refused to accept their authority "was no member of Christ, or of his spouse the Church," "but a very infidel, or heretic, or member of the devil, with whom he should be eternally d.a.m.ned."

[Sidenote: On the sacraments.]

II. Of sacraments generally necessary to all men there were three--baptism, penance, and the sacrament of the altar.[69]

[Sidenote: Baptism.]

[_a_] Of baptism the people were to be taught that it was ordained in the New Testament as a thing necessary for everlasting salvation, according to the saying of Christ, "No man can enter into the kingdom of heaven except he be born again of water and the Holy Ghost." The promises of grace attached to the sacrament of baptism appertained not only to such as had the use of reason, but also to infants, innocents, and children, who, therefore, ought to be baptized, and by baptism obtain remission of sin, and be made thereby sons and children of G.o.d.

[Sidenote: Penance.]

[_b_] Penance was inst.i.tuted in the New Testament, and no man who, after baptism, had fallen into deadly sin, could, without the same, be saved.

As a sacrament it consisted of three parts--contrition, confession, and amendment. Contrition was the acknowledgment of the filthiness and abomination of sin, a sorrow and inward shame for having offended G.o.d, and a certain faith, trust, and confidence in the mercy and goodness of G.o.d, whereby the penitent man must conceive certain hope that G.o.d would forgive him his sins, and repute him justified, of the number of his elect children, not for any worthiness of any merit or work done by the penitent, but for the only merits of the blood and pa.s.sion of Jesus Christ. This faith was strengthened by the special application of Christ's words and promises, and therefore, to attain such certain faith, the second part of penance was necessary; that is to say, confession to a priest (if it might be had), for the absolution given by a priest was inst.i.tuted of Christ, to apply the promises of G.o.d's grace to the penitent. Although Christ's death was a full, sufficient sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction for which G.o.d forgave sinners their sin, and the punishment of it; yet all men ought to bring forth the fruits of penance, prayer, fasting, and almsdeeds, and make rest.i.tution in will and deed to their neighbour if they had done him any wrong, and to do all other good works of mercy and charity.

[Sidenote: The altar.]

[_c_] In the sacrament of the altar, under the form and figure of bread and wine, was verily, substantially, and really contained and comprehended the very self-same body and blood of our Saviour Christ, which was born of the Virgin Mary, and suffered upon the cross for man's redemption; and under the same form and figure of bread and wine was corporeally, really, and in very substance exhibited, distributed, and received of all them which receive the said sacrament.

[Sidenote: Justification.]

III. By justification was signified remission of sin and acceptance into the favour of G.o.d; that is to say, man's perfect renovation in Christ.

Sinners obtained justification by contrition and faith, joined with charity; not as though contrition, or faith, or works proceeding therefrom, could worthily merit the said justification, for the only mercy and grace of the Father promised freely unto us for the Son's sake, and the merits of his blood and pa.s.sion, were the only sufficient and worthy causes thereof; notwithstanding G.o.d required us to show good works in fulfilling his commands, and those who lived after the flesh would be undoubtedly d.a.m.ned.

[Sidenote: Custom and ritual.]

In these articles, which exhausted the essential doctrines of the faith, the principles of the two religions are seen linked together in connexion, yet without combination, a first effort at the compromise between the old and the new which was only successfully completed in the English Prayer-book. The king next went on to those matters of custom and ritual, which, under the late system, had const.i.tuted the whole of religion, and which the Reformers were now trampling upon and insulting.

Under mediaeval Catholicism the cycle of life had been enveloped in symbolism; each epoch from birth to death was attended with its sacrament, each act of every hour with its special consecration: the days were all anniversaries; the weeks, the months, the seasons, as they revolved, brought with them their sacred a.s.sociations and holy memories; and out of imagery and legend, simply taught and simply believed, innocent and beautiful practices had expanded as never-fading flowers by the roadside of existence.

[Sidenote: Obligation of ceremonies long established.]

[Sidenote: Which be not lightly contemned,]

[Sidenote: Yet have no virtue or power in themselves.]

Concerning these, Henry wrote: "As to having vestments in doing G.o.d's service, such as be and have been most part used--the sprinkling of holy water to put us in remembrance of our baptism, and the blood of Christ sprinkled for our redemption on the cross--the giving of holy bread, to put us in remembrance of the sacrament of the altar, that all Christians be one body mystical in Christ, as the bread is made of many grains, and yet but one loaf--the bearing of candles on Candlemas-day, in memory of Christ the spiritual light--the giving of ashes on Ash-Wednesday, to put in remembrance every Christian man in the beginning of Lent and penance that he is but ashes and earth, and thereto shall return--the bearing of palms on Palm Sunday, in memory of the receiving of Christ into Jerusalem a little before his death, that we may have the same desire to receive Him into our hearts--creeping to the cross, and humbling ourselves on Good Friday before the cross, and there offering unto Christ before the same, and kissing of it in memory of our redemption by Christ made upon the cross--setting up the sepulture of Christ, whose body, after his death, was buried--the hallowing of the font, and other like exorcisms and benedictions by the ministers of Christ's Church, and all other like laudable customs, rites, and ceremonies,--they be not to be contemned and cast away, but to be used and continued as good and laudable, to put us in remembrance of those spiritual things that they do signify, not suffering them to be forgot, or to be put in oblivion, but renewing them in our memories. But none of these ceremonies have power to remit sin, but only to stir and lift up our minds unto G.o.d, by whom only our sins be forgiven."

So, too, of the saints. "The saints may be honoured because they are with Christ in glory; and though Christ be the only Mediator, yet we may pray to the saints to pray for us and with us unto Almighty G.o.d; we may say to them, 'All holy angels and saints in heaven, pray for us and with us unto the Father, that for his dear Son Jesus Christ's sake we may have grace of Him and remission of our sins, with an earnest purpose to keep his holy commandments, and never to decline from the same again unto our lives' end.'"

[Sidenote: Purgatory to be received in a general sense,]

[Sidenote: But special interpretation as far as possible to be avoided.]

Finally, on the great vexed question of purgatory. "Forasmuch as the due order of charity requireth, and the books of Maccabees and divers antient doctors plainly shew, that it is a very good, charitable deed to pray for souls departed; and forasmuch as such usage hath continued in the Church for many years, no man ought to be grieved with the continuance of the same. But forasmuch as the place where they be, the name thereof, and kind of pains there, be to us uncertain by Scripture, therefore this with all other things we remit unto Almighty G.o.d, unto whose mercy it is meet and convenient for us to commend them, trusting that G.o.d accepteth our prayers for them. Wherefore it is much necessary that such abuses be clearly put away, which, under the name of purgatory, hath been advanced; as to make men believe that through the Bishop of Rome's pardons men might be delivered out of purgatory and all the pains of it, or that ma.s.ses said at any place or before any image might deliver them from their pain and send them straight to heaven."[70]

We have now before us the stormy eloquence of Pole, the iconoclasm of Latimer, the superst.i.tions of the complaining clergy--representing three principles struggling one against the other, and the voice of the pilot heard above the tempest. Each of these contained some element which the other needed; they were to fret and chafe till the dust was beaten off, and the grains of gold could meet and fuse.

[Sidenote: The articles pa.s.s convocation, but create dissatisfaction.]

The articles were debated in convocation, and pa.s.sed because it was the king's will. No party were pleased. The Protestants exclaimed against the countenance to superst.i.tion; the Anglo-Catholics lamented the visible taint of heresy, the reduced number of the sacraments, the doubtful language upon purgatory, and the silence--dangerously significant--on the nature of the priesthood. They were signed, however, by all sides; and by Cromwell, now Lord Cromwell, lord privy seal, and not vicar-general only, but appointed vicegerent of the king in all matters ecclesiastical, they were sent round through the English counties, to be obeyed by every man at his peril.[71]

[Sidenote: Convocation decree that the Pope has no power to call general councils.]

The great matters being thus disposed of, the business of the session concluded with a resolution pa.s.sed on the 20th of July, respecting general councils. The Pope, at the beginning of June, had issued notice of a council to be a.s.sembled, if possible, at Mantua, in the following year. The English government were contented to recognise a council called _ad loc.u.m indifferentem_, with the consent of the great powers of Europe. They would send no delegates to a petty Italian princ.i.p.ality, where the decrees would be dictated by the Pope and the Emperor. The convocation p.r.o.nounced that the Pope had gone beyond his authority: a general council could not legally be called without the consent of all Christian princes; to princes the right belonged of determining the time and place of such an a.s.sembly, of appointing the judges, of fixing the order of proceeding, and of deciding even upon the doctrines which might lawfully be allowed and defended.[72]

This was the last act of the year; immediately after, the convocation was prorogued. From the temper which had been displayed, it was easy to see that trouble was impending. The form which it would a.s.sume was soon to show itself.

Meanwhile, an event occurred of deeper importance than decrees of councils, convocation quarrels, and moves and counter-moves on the political chessboard; an event not to be pa.s.sed by in silence, though I can only glance at it.

The agitation caused by the queen's trial had suspended hitherto the fate of the monasteries. On the dispersion of the clergy a commission was appointed by Cromwell, to put in force the act of dissolution;[73]

and a series of injunctions were simultaneously issued, one of which related to the articles of faith, another to the observance of the order diminis.h.i.+ng the number of holy-days; a third forbade the extolling the special virtue of images and relics, as things which had caused much folly and superst.i.tion; the people should learn that G.o.d would be better pleased to see them providing for their families by honest labour, than by idling upon pilgrimages; if they had money to spare, they might give it in charity to the poor.

[Sidenote: Directions issued for the education of the people.]

The paternoster, the apostles' creed, and the ten commandments had been lately published in English. Fathers of families, schoolmasters, and heads of households were to take care that these fundamental elements of the Christian faith should be learnt by the children and servants under their care; and the law of the land was to be better observed, which directed that every child should be brought up either to learning or to some honest occupation, "lest they should fall to sloth and idleness, and being brought after to calamity and misery, impute their ruin to those who suffered them to be brought up idly in their youth."

[Sidenote: A Bible in English to be provided in every parish.]

An order follows, of more significance: "Every parson or proprietary of every parish church within this realm shall, on this side of the feast of St. Peter ad Vincula next coming,[74] provide a book of the whole Bible, both in Latin and also in English, and lay the same in the quire, for every man that will to read and look therein; and shall discourage no man from reading any part of the Bible, but rather comfort, exhort, and admonish every man to read the same, as the very word of G.o.d and the spiritual food of man's soul; ever gently and charitably exhorting them, that using a sober and modest behaviour in the reading and inquisition of the true sense of the same, they do in nowise stiffly or eagerly contend or strive one with another about the same, but refer the declaration of those places that be in controversy to the judgment of the learned."

[Sidenote: Translations existing before the Reformation.]

The publication of the English translation of the Bible, with the permission for its free use among the people--the greatest, because the purest victory so far gained by the Reformers--was at length accomplished; a few words will explain how, and by whom. Before the Reformation, two versions existed of the Bible in English--two certainly, perhaps three. One was Wicliffe's; another, based on Wicliffe's, but tinted more strongly with the peculiar opinions of the Lollards, followed at the beginning of the fifteenth century; and there is said to have been a third, but no copy of _this_ is known to survive, and the history of it is vague.[75] The possession or the use of these translations was prohibited by the Church, under pain of death.

They were extremely rare, and little read; and it was not till Luther's great movement began in Germany, and his tracts and commentaries found their way into England, that a practical determination was awakened among the people, to have before them, in their own tongue, the book on which their faith was built.

[Sidenote: Tyndal's New Testament.]

[Sidenote: Rapid sale in England.]

I have already described how William Tyndal felt his heart burn in him to accomplish this great work for his country; how he applied for a.s.sistance to a learned bishop; how he discovered rapidly that the a.s.sistance which he would receive from the Church authorities would be a speedy elevation to martyrdom; how he went across the Channel to Luther, and thence to Antwerp; and how he there, in the year 1526, achieved and printed the first edition of the New Testament. It was seen how copies were carried over secretly to London, and circulated in thousands by the Christian Brothers. The council threatened; the bishops anathematized.

They opened subscriptions to buy up the hated and dreaded volumes. They burnt them publicly in St. Paul's. The whip, the gaol, the stake, did their worst; and their worst was nothing. The high dignitaries of the earth were fighting against Heaven, and met the success which ever attends such contests. Three editions were sold before 1530; and in that year a fresh instalment was completed. The Pentateuch was added to the New Testament; and afterwards, by Tyndal himself, or under Tyndal's eyes, the historical books, the Psalms and Prophets. At length the whole canon was translated, and published in separate portions.

[Sidenote: The bishops' protest.]

[Sidenote: The king commands them to prepare a new translation.]