The Economic Aspect of Geology Part 9

A small amount of marble of special beauty, adapted to ornamental purposes, is imported from European countries, especially from Italy.

Marble imports from Italy const.i.tute about two-thirds, both in tonnage and value, of all stone imported into the United States.

SAND, SANDSTONE, QUARTZITE (AND QUARTZ)

Sand is composed mainly of particles of quartz or silica, though sometimes feldspar and other minerals are present. Sandstones are partially cemented sands. Quartzites are completely cemented sands. To some extent these substances are used interchangeably for the same purposes.

The princ.i.p.al uses of sand in order of commercial totals are for building purposes--for mortar, concrete, sand-lime brick, etc.,--as molding sand in foundries, as a const.i.tuent of gla.s.s, in grinding and polis.h.i.+ng, in paving, as engine sand, as fire or furnace sand, in the manufacture of ferrosilicon (a steel alloy), and in filters. Reference is made to sand as an abrasive and in the manufacture of steel in Chapters XIII and IX. Almost every state produces some sand, but for some of the more specialized uses, such as gla.s.s sand, molding sand, and fire or furnace sand, the distribution is more or less limited. The United States Geological Survey has collected information concerning the distribution of various kinds of sand and gravel, and serves a very useful function in furnis.h.i.+ng data as to supplies of material for particular purposes. Fine molding sands have been imported from France, but during the war domestic sources in New York and Ohio were developed sufficiently to meet any requirements.

The sandstone of commerce includes the quartzites of Minnesota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin, and the fine-grained sandstones of New York, Pennsylvania, and elsewhere, known to the trade as "bluestone." In Kentucky most of the sandstone quarried is known locally as "freestone."

The princ.i.p.al uses of sandstone are for building stone, crushed stone, and ganister (for silica brick and furnace-linings). Other uses are for paving blocks, curbing, flagging, riprap, rubble, grindstones, whetstones, and pulpstones (see also Chapter XIII). Sandstone is sometimes crushed into sand and is used in the manufacture of gla.s.s and as molding-sand. Most of the states of the union produce sandstone, the princ.i.p.al producers being Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York.

"SAND AND GRAVEL"

Where sand is coa.r.s.e and impure and mixed with pebbles, it is Ordinarily referred to as "sand and gravel." For sand and gravel the princ.i.p.al uses are for railroad ballast, for road building, and for concrete. Sand and gravel are produced in almost every state in the union, the largest producers being Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, New Jersey, and North Carolina.

CLAY, SHALE, SLATE

Shale is consolidated clay, usually with a fine lamination due to bedding. Slate is a more dense and crystalline rock, produced usually by the anamorphism of clay or shale under pressure, and characterized by a fine cleavage which is usually inclined to the sedimentary bedding.

Clays are used princ.i.p.ally for building and paving brick and tile, sewer-pipe, railroad ballast, road material, puddle, Portland cement, and pottery. Clay is mined in almost every state. Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Illinois have the largest production. There has been a considerable importation of high-grade clays, princ.i.p.ally from England, for special purposes--such as the filling and coating of paper; the manufacture of china, of porcelain for electrical purposes, and of crucibles; and for use in ultramarine pigments, in sanitary ware, in oilcloth, and as fillers in cotton bleacheries. War experience showed the possibility of subst.i.tution of domestic clays for most of these uses; but results were not in all cases satisfactory, and the United States will doubtless continue to use imported clays for some of these special purposes.

Shales, because of their thinly bedded character and softness, are of no value as building stones, but are used in the manufacture of brick, tile, pottery, and Portland cement.

Slates owe their commercial value primarily to their cleavage, which gives well-defined planes of splitting. The princ.i.p.al uses are for roofing and, in the form of so-called mill stock for sanitary, structural, and electrical purposes. Small amounts are used for tombstones, roads, slate granules for patent roofing, school slates, blackboard material, billiard table material, etc. The color, fineness of the cleavage, and size of the flakes are the princ.i.p.al features determining the use of any particular slate. Ten states produce slate, the princ.i.p.al production coming from Pennsylvania and Vermont.

THE FELDSPARS

Feldspars are minerals, not rocks, but mention of them is made here because, with quartz, they make up such an overwhelming percentage of earth materials. It is estimated that the feldspars make up 50 per cent of all the igneous rocks and 16 per cent of the sedimentary rocks. As the igneous rocks are so much more abundant than the sedimentary rocks, the percentage of feldspars in the earth approaches the former rather than the latter figure. In most rocks feldspar is in too small grains and is too intimately a.s.sociated with other minerals to be of commercial importance; in only one type of rock, pegmat.i.te, which is an igneous rock of extremely coa.r.s.e and irregular texture, are the feldspar crystals sufficiently large and concentrated to be commercially available.

Feldspar is used princ.i.p.ally in the manufacture of pottery, china ware, porcelain, enamel ware, and enamel brick and tile. In the body of these products it is used to lower the fusing point of the other ingredients and to form a firm bond between their particles. Its use in forming the glaze of ceramic products is also due to its low melting point. A less widespread use of feldspar is as an abrasive (Chapter XIII). One of the varieties of feldspar carries about 15 per cent of potash, and because of the abundance of the mineral there has been much experimental work to ascertain the possibility of separating potash for fertilizer purposes; but, because of cost, this source of potash is not likely for a long time to compete with the potash salts already concentrated by nature.

Feldspar is mined in eleven states, but the important production comes from North Carolina and Maine. The United States also imports some feldspar from Canada.

HYDRAULIC CEMENT (including Portland, natural, and Puzzolan cements)

Cement is a manufactured product made from limestone (or marl) and clay (or shale). Sometimes these two kinds of substances are so combined in nature (as in certain clayey limestones) that they are available for cement manufacture without artificial mixing. It is not our purpose in this volume to discuss manufactured products; but the cement industry involves such a simple transformation of raw materials, and is so closely localized by the distribution of the raw materials, that a mention of some of its outstanding features seems desirable.

Hydraulic cement is used almost exclusively as a structural material. It is an essential ingredient of concrete. Originally used chiefly for the bonding of brick and stone masonry and for foundation work, its uses have grown rapidly, especially with the introduction of reinforced concrete. It is being used in the construction of roads, and its latest use is in s.h.i.+p construction.

With the exception of satisfactory fuels, the raw materials required for the manufacture of cement are found quite generally throughout the world. While practically all countries produce some cement, much of it of natural grade, only the largest producers make enough for their own requirements and as a result there is a large world movement of this commodity. The world trade is chiefly in Portland cement.

Next to the United States, the producing countries having the largest exportable surplus of cement in normal times are Germany and Great Britain. France and Belgium were both large producers and exporters before the war, but the war greatly reduced their capacity to produce for the time being. Sweden, Denmark, Austria, j.a.pan, and Switzerland all produce less extensively but have considerable surplus available for export. Italy and Spain have large productions, which are about sufficient for their own requirements. Holland and Russia import large amounts from the other European countries. The far eastern trade absorbs the excess production of j.a.pan. In South Africa and Australasia, production nearly equals demand. In Canada, although the industry has been growing very rapidly, the demand still exceeds production. In South and Central America, Mexico and the West Indies, the demand is considerable and will probably increase; production has thus far been insufficient. Several modern mills are either recently completed or under construction in these countries, and concessions have been granted for several others. These new mills are largely financed by American capital.

The United States is the largest single producer of cement in the world, its annual production being about 45 per cent of the world's total.

Domestic consumption has always been nearly as great as the production, and exports have usually not exceeded 4 per cent of the total s.h.i.+pments from the mills. South and Central America offer fields for exportation of cement from the United States.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES OF THE COMMON ROCKS

To describe the geologic features of the common rocks used in commerce would require a full treatise on the subject of geology. These are the bulk materials of the earth and in them we read the geologic history of the earth. In preceding chapters a brief outline has been given of the relative abundance of the common earth materials and of the processes producing them. In comparison, the metalliferous deposits are the merest incidents in the development of this great group of mineral resources.

In this section reference will be made only to a few of the rock qualities and other geologic features which require first attention in determining the availability of a common rock for commercial use. The list is very fragmentary, for the reason that the uses are so many and so varied that to describe all the geologic features which are important from the standpoint of all uses would very soon bring the discussion far beyond the confines of a book of this scope.[13]

BUILDING STONE

For building stones, the princ.i.p.al geologic features requiring attention are structure, durability, beauty, and coloring.

The structures of a rock include jointing, sedimentary stratification, and secondary cleavage. Nearly all rocks are jointed. The joints may be open and conspicuous, or closed and almost imperceptible. The closed joints or incipient joints cause planes of weakness, known variously as rift, grain, etc., which largely determine the shapes of the blocks which may be extracted from a quarry. Where properly distributed, they may facilitate the quarrying of the stone. In other cases they may be injurious, in that they limit the size of the blocks which can be extracted and afford channels for weathering agents. Some rocks of otherwise good qualities are so cut by joints that they are useless for anything but crushed stone. The bedding planes or stratification of sedimentary rocks exercise influences similar to joints, and like joints may be useful or disadvantageous, depending on their s.p.a.cing. The secondary cleavage of some rocks, notably slates, enables them to be split into flat slabs and thus makes them useful for certain purposes.

Proper methods of extraction and use of a rock may minimize the disadvantageous effects of its structural features. The use of channelling machines instead of explosives means less shattering of the rock. By proper dressing of the surface the opening of small crevices may be avoided. Stratified rocks set on bed, so that the bedding planes are horizontal, last longer than if set on edge.

The durability of a rock may depend on its perviousness to water which may enter along planes of bedding or incipient fracture planes, or along the minute pore s.p.a.ces between the mineral particles. The water may cause disastrous chemical changes in the minerals and by its freezing and thawing may cause splitting. For this reason, the less pervious rocks have in general greater durability than the more pervious. Highly pervious rocks used in a dry position or in a dry climate will last longer than elsewhere.

Durability is determined also by the different coefficients of expansion of the const.i.tuent minerals of the rock. Where the minerals are heterogeneous in this regard, differential stresses are more likely to be set up than where the minerals are h.o.m.ogeneous. Likewise a coa.r.s.e-textured rock is in general less durable than a fine-textured one. Expansion and contraction of a stone under ordinary temperature changes, and also under fire and freezing, must necessarily be known for many kinds of construction.

Minerals resist weathering to different degrees, therefore the mineral composition of a rock is another considerable factor in determining its durability. Where pyrite is present in abundance it easily weathers out, leaving iron-stained pits and releasing sulphuric acid which decomposes the rock. Abundance of mica, especially where segregated along the stratification planes, permits easy splitting of the rock under weathering. Likewise the mica often weathers more quickly than the surrounding minerals, giving a pitted appearance; in marbles and limestones its irregular occurrence may spoil the appearance. Flint or chert in abundance is deleterious to limestones and marbles, because, being more resistant, it stands out in relief on the weathered surface, interferes with smooth cutting and polis.h.i.+ng, and often causes the rock to split along the lines of the flint concretions. Abundance of tremolite may also be disadvantageous to limestones and marbles, because it weathers to a greenish-yellow clay and leaves a pitted surface.

The crus.h.i.+ng strength of a rock has an obvious relation to its structural uses. The rock must be strong enough for the specified load.

Most hard rocks ordinarily considered for building purposes are strong enough for the loads to which subjected, and this factor is perhaps ordinarily less important than the structural and mineral features already mentioned.

It is often necessary to know the modulus of elasticity and other mechanical constants of a rock, as in cases where it is to be combined with metal or other masonry or to be subjected to exceptional shock.

The beauty and coloring of a rock are its esthetic rather than its utilitarian features. They are particularly important in the construction of buildings and monuments for public or ornamental purposes.

CRUSHED STONE

The largest use of rock or stone is in the crushed form for road building, railway embankments, and concrete, and the prospect is for largely increased demands for such uses in the future. For the purpose of road building, it is necessary to consider a stone's resistance to abrasion, hardness, toughness, cementing value, absorption, and specific gravity. Limestone cements well, but in other qualities it is not desirable for heavy traffic. Shales are soft and clayey, and grind down to a ma.s.s which is dry and powdery, and muddy in wet weather. Basalt and related rocks resist abrasion, and cement well. Granites and other coa.r.s.e-grained igneous rocks do not cement well and are not resistant to abrasion. Many sandstones are very hard and brittle and resist abrasion, but do not cement.

The application of geology on a large scale to the study of sources and qualities of crushed stone is now being required in connection with the great state and national projects of highway building. This work is by no means confined to a mere testing of the physical qualities of road-building materials found along the proposed route, but includes a careful study of their geologic occurrence, distribution, and probable amounts. In certain of the northern states specialists in glacial geology are preferred for this purpose.

STONE FOR METALLURGICAL PURPOSES

The use of limestone and other rock for metallurgical fluxes is dependent very largely on chemical composition. Comparatively few limestones are sufficiently pure for this purpose. For furnace linings, the quartzite or ganister must be exceptionally pure. The field search for rocks of the necessary composition has required geologic service.

CLAY

For a variety of uses to which clay is put, it is necessary to know its degree of plasticity, tensile strength, shrinkage (both under air and fire), fusibility, color, specific gravity, and chemical properties. The testing of clay for its various possible uses is a highly specialized job, usually beyond the range of a geologist, although certain geologists have been leaders in this type of investigation. More commonly within the range of a geologist are questions concerning origin, field cla.s.sification, distribution, quant.i.ties, and other geologic conditions affecting quality and production.

Clay originates from the weathering of common rocks containing silicates, by pretty well understood weathering processes (see Chapter II). It may remain in place above the parent rock, or may be transported and redeposited, either on land or under water, by the agencies of air, water, and ice. The kind of parent rock, the climatic conditions and nature of the weathering, and the degree of sorting during transportation, all determine the composition and texture of the resulting clay,--with the result that a cla.s.sification on the basis of origin may indicate the broad group characteristics which it is desirable to know for commercial purposes. For instance, residual clays from the weathering of granite may be broadly contrasted with residual clays formed by the weathering of limestone, and both differ in group characteristics from clays in glacial deposits. Cla.s.sification according to origin also may be useful in indicating general features of depth, quant.i.ty, and distribution. However, a genetic cla.s.sification of clays is often not sufficient to indicate the precise characteristics which it is necessary to know in determining their availability for narrow and special technical requirements. Furthermore, clays suitable for certain commercial requirements may be formed in several different ways, and cla.s.sification based on specific qualities may therefore not correspond at all to geologic cla.s.sification based on origin.