How Britannia Came to Rule the Waves Part 7

From the instances already given, it will be seen that the naval officers of those days possessed a das.h.i.+ng, dauntless courage which no dangers could subdue. The following is one among many others. The _Tiger_ frigate, commanded by Captain Harman, was lying in the Port of Cadiz at the same time that a Dutch squadron was there. De Witt, the captain of one of the Dutch frigates, was particularly friendly with Captain Harman; this made the Spaniards insinuate that he dared not fight the English frigate. Evertzen, the Dutch admiral, on hearing this report, told De Witt that he must challenge the English captain to go to sea and fight him, to support the honour of his nation, and that he would a.s.sist him with sixty seamen and seventy soldiers. Captain Harman readily accepted his proposal, and on a day fixed both s.h.i.+ps stood to sea, and began to engage within pistol-shot of each other. In a short time the Dutch s.h.i.+p's main-mast was shot away. Captain Harman, availing himself of the confusion into which this disaster had thrown the enemy, boarded and compelled her to surrender, with the loss of 140 men. The English had only nine killed and fifteen wounded.

Since the increase of the navy, the Cinque Ports being of less consequence than formerly, the king granted them a new charter confirming their ancient privileges, with the addition of some regulations more suitable to modern times.

As an encouragement for seamen to enter into the navy, a bounty was given to all who entered on board first and second-rates of six weeks'

pay, and on board of third-rates one month's pay.

In 1673 an order was issued to all commanders of His Majesty's s.h.i.+ps of war that in future they were not to require French s.h.i.+ps to strike the flag or topsail, or salute, neither were they to salute those of the French king.

In 1673 the oaths of allegiance and supremacy were first administered to the officers in His Majesty's navy. The king granted half-pay to several captains in the navy, according to the rates they commanded, as a gratuity for their bravery during the war.

The regulating and allotting of cabins to each particular officer was first established.

For some years merchant-s.h.i.+ps had been sheathed with lead, and the experiment was now tried on the _Harwich_ and _Kingfisher_ s.h.i.+ps of war, as also on several other s.h.i.+ps ordered for foreign service. The practice was, however, in a few years discontinued.

The Royal Navy was now becoming far larger than it had ever before been.

In 1675 the Parliament granted 300,000 pounds for the building of twenty large s.h.i.+ps of war, one first-rate of 1400 tons, eight second-rates of 1100 tons, and eleven third-rates of 700 tons. At the same time the tonnage and poundage money was applied to the benefit of the Royal Navy. The Newfoundland fishery had begun to a.s.sume considerable importance, it being considered especially useful as a nursery to furnish seamen for the Royal Navy. Thus in the year 1676, 102 s.h.i.+ps were employed, each s.h.i.+p carrying 20 guns, 18 boats, and 5 men to each boat, making in all 9180 men.

The corsairs which sailed forth from the States of Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers, continuing their depredations on English merchant-s.h.i.+ps, Sir John Narborough was in 1675 despatched with a powerful squadron to teach them better behaviour. On arriving off Tripoli Sir John sent Lieutenant Cloudesly Shovel, of whom we now first hear, to open negotiations with the Dey. That Oriental potentate, despising Mr Shovel for his youthful appearance, sent him back with a disrespectful answer. He had, however, made a note of everything he saw, and on returning on board he a.s.sured the commodore of the practicability of burning the piratical fleet. The night being extremely dark, the commodore despatched Lieutenant Shovel with all the boats of the fleet to destroy the s.h.i.+ps in the mole.

Lieutenant Shovel first seized the guard-boat, then entered the mole, and burnt four large armed s.h.i.+ps, without losing a man. The Dey, terrified by these unexpected proceedings of the English, sued for peace; but, according to time-honoured eastern custom, delayed the fulfilment of his engagements, on which Sir John sailing in, cannonaded the town, landed a party of men, burnt some stores, and finally brought him to terms. One of the pirate s.h.i.+ps carried 50 guns, one 30, one 24, and another 20 guns. These powerful rovers were indeed a match for any ordinary merchant-vessel, and often contended desperately with men-of-war. In 1677 the 26-gun s.h.i.+p _Guernsey_, Captain James Harman, fell in with one of them, an Algerine called the _White Horse_, carrying 50 guns, and 500 men, while the crew of the _Guernsey_ numbered only 110. A fierce action ensued, when at length the Algerine, taking advantage of the _Guernsey's_ disabled state, sheered off, these pirates always fighting for booty rather than for honour. The gallant Captain Harman received three musket-b.a.l.l.s in his body, and a severe contusion from a cannon-shot. He still fought his s.h.i.+p till he sank from exhaustion, when Lieutenant John Harris took command. The _Guernsey_ in the action lost nine killed and many wounded, besides the captain, who three days afterwards expired.

A still more successful action was fought between the 40-gun s.h.i.+p _Adventure_, Captain William Booth, and an Algerine s.h.i.+p of war called the _Golden Horse_, of 46 guns, commanded by Morat Rais, a notorious Dutch renegado, who had a crew of 508 Moors and 90 Christian slaves.

During the action a stranger hove in sight under Turkish colours; but night coming on, the Algerine drew off, when Captain Booth, having a fire-s.h.i.+p in company, gave orders to burn her or the new-comer.

Fortunately, the fire-s.h.i.+p failed to reach either one or other, and in the morning the stranger hoisted English colours, and proved to be the 40-gun s.h.i.+p _Nonsuch_. The _Golden Horse_ being dismasted, and 109 of her crew killed and 120 wounded, and having six-feet of water in the hold, surrendered.

In the same year a 42-gun s.h.i.+p, Captain Morgan Kempthorne, beat off seven Algerine corsairs, after they had made several desperate attempts to board her. Unhappily the Captain and eight of his crew were killed, and 38 wounded.

Many other similar gallant actions were fought with the Algerines and Sallee rovers, who, however, notwithstanding their frequent defeats, continued their depredations on the commerce of England and other European countries. Tangiers had been in possession of the English about twenty years, but, to save the expense of keeping it up, a fleet under Lord Dartmouth was sent out to destroy all the works, and to bring home the garrison. The destruction of the mole, which was admirably built, caused much labour, it being necessary to blow it up by piecemeal. Its ruins, as well as the rubbish of the town, were thrown into the harbour to prevent its again becoming a port.

The navy had long been held in high estimation by the English, who were always ready to grant any sum required for its improvement. It is stated that between the years 1660 and 1670 never less than 5000 pounds a-year was granted for its support. On the death of Charles the Royal Navy amounted to 113 sail.

JAMES THE SECOND.

James, on his accession, a.s.signed a stated sum of 400,000 pounds a-year, to be paid quarterly from the treasury, for the service of the navy.

Four additional commissioners were also appointed for the better regulating of the docks and naval storehouses, and for the more speedy repairs of s.h.i.+ps of war. During this time a plan was proposed and patent granted for making salt water fresh by distillation. All captains and officers received orders to despatch perfect copies of their journals to the Secretary of the Admiralty. An increased allowance of table-money was granted in lieu of several perquisites and advantages they had before enjoyed.

The larger number of the officers and men of the navy were sound Protestants, who regarded the proceedings of James with jealous eyes; and thus, notwithstanding his magnificent fleet, Lord Dartmouth could only muster 17 sail of the line, chiefly third and fourth-rates, 3 frigates, 13 fire-s.h.i.+ps, and 3 yachts to oppose the landing of the Prince of Orange.

On the 12th of December, 1688, James the Second finished his short reign by abdicating the throne, at which time the navy consisted of 173 sail, showing that he must have either built or purchased sixty s.h.i.+ps.

CHAPTER TEN.

A VIEW OF NAVAL AFFAIRS IN CHARLES THE SECOND'S REIGN.

A.D. 1660 to A.D. 1689.

When great guns or cannon came into use, the old style of fighting at sea was completely changed. We hear of them as early as the thirteenth century, employed in a naval engagement between the King of Tunis and the Moorish King of Seville. They were first used on sh.o.r.e by the English at the battle of Crescy, fought in 1346, and at sea by the Venetians about the year 1380. In the reigns of Richard the Third and Henry the Seventh they were first employed by the English at sea. They were not then, however, as now, pointed through port-holes, but were mounted so as to fire over the bulwarks of the vessel. In those days, therefore, s.h.i.+ps of war could have had but one armed deck, and were probably urged by oars as well as by sails. Port-holes were invented by Descharves, a French builder at Brest, and the first English s.h.i.+p in which they were formed was the _Henry Grace de Dieu_, built at Erith in 1515. She was said to have been of no less than 1000 tons burden, but as we are ignorant of the mode in which s.h.i.+ps were measured for tonnage in those days, we cannot tell her actual burden. She must, however, have been a large vessel, for she had two whole decks, besides what we now call a forecastle and p.o.o.p. She mounted altogether eighty pieces, composed of every calibre in use; but of these not more than fifty-four, according to the print before us, were pointed through broadside ports.

The rest were either mounted as bow or stern chasers, or as "murdering pieces," as they were called, which pointed down on the deck; their object apparently being, should a s.h.i.+p be boarded, to fire on the enemy.

The calibre of great guns was not in those days designated by the weight of the shot they discharged. This was probably from the reason that the b.a.l.l.s were not all made of the same materials. At first they were of stone; then those of iron were introduced; and sometimes they were formed of lead; and, at an early period, hollow iron shot, filled with combustible matter, were brought into use. Thus the weight of shot fluctuated too much to serve for the cla.s.sification of the gun from which it was fired. s.h.i.+ps' guns in those days were known as cannon, cannon royal, cannon serpentine, b.a.s.t.a.r.d cannon, demi-cannon, and cannon petro.

The _Sovereign of the Seas_ was built at Woolwich Dockyard, in 1637, by Mr Phineas Pett, and Mr Thomas Haywood was the designer of her decorations. She measured, probably, about 1500 tons. He describes her as having three flush-decks and a forecastle, one half-deck, a quarter-deck, and a round house. Her lower tier had 30 ports which were furnished with demi-cannon and whole cannon throughout; her middle tier had also 30 ports of demi-culverins and whole culverins; her third tier had 36 ports for other ordnance; her forecastle had 12 ports; and her half-deck 13 ports. She had 13 or 14 ports more within-board for murdering pieces, besides a great many loop-holes out of the cabins for musket-shot. She carried, moreover, 10 pieces of chase ordnance forward and 10 right aft. This first-rate of the seventeenth century would thus have had 126 guns; in reality, however, these ports right forward and right aft, as well as those on the forecastle, had no guns, and thus she actually carried only 100.

About the middle of the seventeenth century the s.h.i.+ps of the British Navy ceased to carry guns of a similar calibre on the same deck. At the same time the c.u.mbrous forecastles and aftercastles, which must have been equally inconvenient both in action and in a sea way, were removed.

The murdering pieces were likewise got rid of, and at the same time, an English s.h.i.+p of war could fire from her broadside half the number of guns she carried.

In 1546 Henry the Eighth possessed fifty-eight s.h.i.+ps, which were cla.s.sed according to their quality; thus there were shyppes, gallia.s.ses, pinnaces, and row-barges. The gallia.s.se was somewhat like the lugger or felucca of modern days. She probably was a long, low, and sharp-built vessel, propelled by oars as well as sails--the latter not fixed to a standing yard, but hoisted like a boat's sail when required. The pinnace was a small kind of gallia.s.se.

In 1612 we find a list in which the vessels of the Royal Navy were cla.s.sed as s.h.i.+ps-royal, which measured from 800 to 1200 tons, middling s.h.i.+ps from 600 to 800 tons, small s.h.i.+ps from 350 tons, and pinnaces from 80 to 250 tons, divided into rates. They were six in number, and each rate consisted of two cla.s.ses, to which different complements of men were a.s.signed. We are not told what were the armaments of the cla.s.ses.

The division into rates was adopted to regulate the pay of the officers and seamen, as is the case at the present day.

In 1651-2, we find a list of all s.h.i.+ps, frigates, and other vessels belonging to the States' Navy cla.s.sified by the guns they carried. Of these there were twenty-three cla.s.ses comprised within the second-rates, exclusive of two unrated cla.s.ses--namely, hulks and shallops or row-barges. The former were used either to lodge the officers and crews of vessels undergoing repair, or were fitted with shears to erect or remove masts. In the course of a few years after this, sloops, bombs, fire-s.h.i.+ps, and yachts are spoken of as among the unrated cla.s.ses; but in the sixth-rate were comprised vessels mounting only two guns.

Towards the end of the century such small craft were cla.s.sed by themselves as sloops.

In 1675 fire-s.h.i.+ps first appear in a list of the navy. They were much used at that time for the purpose of setting fire to the enemy's vessels. Mr Pepys, who is the chief authority on naval affairs at this period, says that the Dutch, in the year 1660, made a present of a yacht, called _Maria_, to Charles the Second, remarking, "until which time we had not heard of such a name in England."

About the year 1650 a difference was made between the number of guns and men carried by s.h.i.+ps in war time and in peace time, and in war and peace abroad. This difference, it is evident, arose from the inability of a s.h.i.+p to carry a sufficient amount of provisions for her crew when sent on a long voyage. When such was the case it was necessary to reduce both the number of men and guns, in order to allow room for a sufficient supply of provisions. As far as we can judge, a first-rate of the latter end of the seventeenth century mounted her guns on three whole decks, a quarter-deck, forecastle, and p.o.o.p; a second-rate mounted hers on three whole decks and a quarter-deck; a third-rate on two whole decks, a quarter-deck, forecastle, and p.o.o.p; a fourth-rate on two whole decks and a quarter-deck; a fifth-rate on her first gun-deck, with a few guns on her quarter-deck; a sixth-rate on a single-deck, with or without any on her quarter-deck.

There were at that period three-deckers of sixty-four guns, and two-deckers of only thirty guns. With regard to the guns themselves, the demi-cannon was probably a 32-pounder, the cannon petro a 24-pounder, and the basilisk a 12-pounder; the whole culverin an 18-pounder, and the demi-culverin a 9-pounder; the saker a 6-pounder, and the mignon a 4-pounder. The smaller guns were called swivels, and were mounted on upright timbers, having a pivot on which the gun traversed. Guns at sea were formerly known by the names of beasts and birds of prey, till about the year 1685 they were designated by the weight of the shot they carried.

In 1688 we find mention made of bombs, which were vessels carrying six or eight light guns, and one or two heavy mortars for the purpose of throwing sh.e.l.ls into a town. It is said that they were invented by Reynaud, a Frenchman, and that they were first employed at the bombardment of Algiers in 1681.

In the year 1714 we find the navy divided into ten cla.s.ses, s.h.i.+ps carrying 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 10 guns. The first-rate descended no lower than to s.h.i.+ps carrying 100 guns; the second no lower than to those of 90 guns; the third admitted all cla.s.ses below and above 60; the fourth between 60 and 50; the fifth between 50 and 30; the sixth comprised all vessels below 50, except sloops, bombs, etcetera.

By the end of the reign of George the First, s.h.i.+ps no longer carried guns on their p.o.o.ps.

The English style of naming the decks of a s.h.i.+p differs from that of other nations, and though perfectly understood by her crew, is calculated to puzzle a landsman. In a one-decked s.h.i.+p the deck on which the guns are carried is called the main-deck, while the deck below it, to which there are no ports, the lower or gun-deck. Hence the term gun-room, occupied by lieutenants or gun-room officers; indeed, the lowest deck of every s.h.i.+p is called the gun-deck. The quarter of a s.h.i.+p is that part of the side which lies towards the stern, and hence that part of the deck is called the quarter-deck, in reference to that portion of the s.h.i.+p's length over which it originally extended. The elevation above it is known as the p.o.o.p, and the raised deck over the fore-part of the s.h.i.+p is known as the top-gallant forecastle. In early days, as we have seen in the case of the _Great Harry_ and other s.h.i.+ps, and even in later days, both at the fore and after-part of the s.h.i.+p there were elevated structures, very properly called castles. In time these were done away with, but short decks elevated above the main or chief deck were still retained, as it was found inconvenient for the seamen when working the s.h.i.+p to descend from one of these elevated decks and then to be compelled to mount the other to get either fore or aft.

They were connected by a grating or gangway of sufficient width to allow the crew to pa.s.s backwards and forwards. This gangway was still further widened; it being strengthened by beams running across the s.h.i.+p, allowed guns to be carried on it. The after-part had long been called the quarter-deck, and the fore-part the forecastle, while the intermediate part was now known as the gangway. This name was also applied to the s.p.a.ce left in the bulwarks for entering or leaving the s.h.i.+p. These portions of the decks now a.s.sumed the appearance of an entire even deck running fore and aft, but it still retained the names originally bestowed on it, and its imaginary divisions. The centre part of the s.h.i.+p, where the gangway is placed, is also commonly called the waist, because originally there was no deck. The deck immediately below this once-divided deck is always called the main-deck. In a three-decker the next is called the middle-deck, and the lowest deck on which guns are carried the lower-deck. Below this again is one still lower-deck called the orlop-deck. A two-decked s.h.i.+p has no middle-deck, but possesses only a main and lower-deck, besides the before-mentioned quarter-deck, gangway, and forecastle. The deck on which a frigate's single battery is carried is always called her main-deck, because the sailors are wont to denominate the upper-deck of every s.h.i.+p carrying guns the main-deck.

In a sloop-s.h.i.+p or corvette the only deck, without any one above it on which guns are carried, is thus invariably called the main-deck, and, as has before been said, the one beneath it on which the officers and crew live, and which has no guns, the gun-deck. s.h.i.+ps which have their only gun-deck running fore and aft for the same height all along are called flush-decked s.h.i.+ps. When the after-part of the deck is raised they are known as being deep-waisted, as is the case with many merchantmen. The highest deck of many men-of-war of all rates is often perfectly level, but others have a short raised deck, extending from just before the mizen-mast to the stern, which is called the p.o.o.p, and in many instances serves as a cover to the captain's cabin. When the admiral is on board he occupies the after-cabins on the upper-deck. In small men-of-war no cabins are placed under the p.o.o.p, nor are they ever under the topgallant forecastle. On board merchantmen, however, where the p.o.o.p is of sufficient elevation and extent to allow of it, the best cabins are always placed under it, while the crew are almost invariably berthed under the top-gallant forecastle. Of course, speaking of men-of-war, we are referring to s.h.i.+ps as they were till the invention of low-sided armour-plated craft, which necessitated a great, if not an entire, change of terms, and the introduction of a considerable number of new ones.

Line of battle s.h.i.+ps, as their name implies, were such as were capable from their size, strength, and the number of their guns, of entering into the line of battle and contending with the largest s.h.i.+ps of the enemy. We first hear of s.h.i.+ps appearing in that character in 1691, forming the British Channel Fleet under Admiral Russell. As far back, however, as the year 1614, in a list of the s.h.i.+ps of the navy, the line of battle s.h.i.+ps are separated from the others. They included all s.h.i.+ps from the first-rate to the fourth-rate. A fleet was now attended by smaller, swift vessels, whose duty it was to look out for the enemy, and to perform other detached services. These vessels were comprised in the fifth and sixth-rates, and from an early period were denominated frigates. In early days a large number of fast-sailing or fast-rowing vessels, whether intended for war or for carrying merchandise, were called frigates. The word friggot or frigat, as it was often written, derives its origin from a cla.s.s of long, sharp vessels used in the Mediterranean, and impelled either by sails or oars, which had a deck, the topside of which was higher than that of the galley. It in general had openings like port-holes, through which the oars pa.s.sed. An Italian describes the fregata as a little vessel with oars, but whence that name is derived is uncertain. A species of swift-flying sea-gull is called by the French a fregate. We have also the frigate-bird; but the name is generally supposed to be derived from the s.h.i.+p, which, however, may not really be the case. It is very clear that its princ.i.p.al quality was the power of moving rapidly either with sails or oars. The French transferred the fregate of the Mediterranean to the northern sh.o.r.e of their country, and constructed it with bluffer bows and of a large size, to contend with the heavy seas of a northern region. English merchant-s.h.i.+ps of the early part of the sixteenth century are frequently spoken of as frigates, and in the latter part of the century were often, as we have seen, hired by the sovereign to serve as s.h.i.+ps of war. As we know from the accounts we have already given of the early voyages, some of their s.h.i.+ps were denominated frigates. Thus, one of the s.h.i.+ps serving with Sir Francis Drake is called the frigate _Elizabeth Fownes_, of 80 guns and 50 men. The Duke of Northumberland, then Sir Robert Dudley, towards the close of the sixteenth century, designed a s.h.i.+p to measure 160 feet in length and 24 in breadth, and constructed to carry a tier of guns on a single whole deck, besides other guns on two short decks, resembling the p.o.o.p and top-gallant forecastle of a modern s.h.i.+p.

He named his vessel a fregata, and her guns were placed exactly as those of a modern frigate.

He designed at the same time seven distinct cla.s.ses of s.h.i.+ps of war, which he named the _Galleon, Ranibargo, Galizabra, Frigata, Gallerone, Gallerata_, and _Pa.s.savolante_. His designs not being accepted, he, in the year 1594, built a vessel for himself at Southampton, which measured 300 tons and mounted 30 guns--of course, of small calibre. In her he made a voyage to India.

Charles the First possessed two frigates, the _Swan_ and _Nicodemus_, each of 60 tons, 10 men, and 3 guns. They probably were only used as yachts. The Duke of Buckingham, who was Lord High Admiral from 1619 to 1636, ordered some frigates to be built from the model of two called the _Providence_ and _Expedition_, captured from the Dunkirkers, mounting, it is supposed, from 20 to 30 guns, the greater number of which were on a single-deck. In consequence of seeing a French frigate in the Thames, Mr Peter Pett took her as his model for building the _Constant Warwick_ in 1649, which was, as he says, the first frigate built in England. She was intended as a privateer for the Earl of Warwick, who afterwards sold her to the king. She measured somewhat under 400 tons, and mounted 60 guns, consisting of 18 light demi-culverins or short 9-pounders on the main-deck, 6 light sakers on the quarter-deck, and 2 mignons on the after-raised deck, which we should now call the p.o.o.p.

In those days, and for many years afterwards, the English were addicted to crowding their vessels with guns, and there can be no doubt that many, like the _Mary Rose_ and others, were in consequence lost; especially as their lower-deck ports were often not more than three feet above the water. The _Constant Warwick_ had afterwards many more guns placed in her, so that she ultimately rated as a 46-gun s.h.i.+p, when, from being an incomparable sailer, she became a slug. Mr Pepys remarks on this subject, in 1663 and 1664: "The Dutch and French built s.h.i.+ps of two decks, which carried from 60 to 70 guns, and so contrived that they carried their lower guns four feet from the water, and could stow four months' provisions--whereas our frigates from the Dunkirk build, which were narrower and sharper, carried their guns but little more than three feet from the water and but ten weeks provisions."

Attempts were made to counteract this great defect, but without much success. For several years afterwards Mr Pepys still complained that frigates were unable to stow a sufficient quant.i.ty of provisions, or to carry their guns high enough out of the water to make them safe.

Up to the early part of the eighteenth century it was a general complaint that s.h.i.+ps of war had more guns placed on board than they could carry--in consequence, that their lower batteries could not be opened when there was any sea on, and that they sailed and worked heavily. It is wonderful, indeed, how British seamen managed to keep them afloat, as it is worthy of note that those which fell into the hands of the enemy were nearly always lost under charge of their new masters. The English, it was said, employed the best materials and workmans.h.i.+p on their vessels, but the French greatly surpa.s.sed them in their models. The English were the first to abandon the flat form of the stern under the counter, and to introduce the curved instead, by which greater strength and lightness as well as beauty was obtained.

In 1748 a s.h.i.+p of 585 tons, to carry 28 guns, 9-pounders on the main-deck and 3-pounders on the quarter-deck, was built; and in 1757 five other vessels, also called frigates, to carry 28 guns, were constructed of fir instead of oak, of the same size; but one of them was captured by the French, and the others in about nine years were broken up as unserviceable.

The first s.h.i.+p which, according to our present ideas, could properly be considered a frigate, was the _Southampton_, built at Rotherhithe in the year 1757 by Mr Robert Inwood, according to a draft of Sir Thomas Slade, one of the surveyors of the navy. She measured 671 tons, and mounted 26 12-pounders on the main-deck, 4 6-pounders on the quarter-deck, and 2 6-pounders on the forecastle. She thus carried all her guns on a single whole deck, a quarter-deck and forecastle, the characteristic of the true frigate. She was considered a prime sailer and first-rate sea-boat, and lasted for fifty-six years, and possibly would have lasted longer had she not gone to pieces on the rocks.

Shortly after this several 36-gun frigates were built. Each was about fifty tons larger than the _Southampton_, and carried four guns more, which were placed on the quarter-deck.