Earth and Sky Every Child Should Know Part 8

The cavern region of Kentucky covers eight thousand square miles. The underground chambers found there are in the limestone rock which varies from ten to four hundred feet in thickness, and averages a little less than two hundred feet. Over this territory the number of sink-holes average one hundred to the square mile; and the streams that have poured their water into these basins have made a network of open caverns one hundred thousand miles in length.

A great many small caverns have been thoroughly explored and are famous for their beauty. The Diamond Cave is one of the most splendid, for it is lined with walls and pillars of alabaster that sparkle in the torchlight with crystals that look like veritable diamonds. Beautiful springs and waterfalls are found in many caves, but the grandest of all is the Mammoth Cave, beside which no other is counted worthy to be compared.

Great tales the miners told of the wonder and the beauty of these caverns, the walls of which were supported by arching alabaster columns and wonderful domes, of indescribable beauty of form and colouring. In 1799, the year that Was.h.i.+ngton died, a pioneer discovered the entrance to a cave, the size and beauty of which surpa.s.sed anything he had seen before. After exploring it for a short distance he returned home and took his whole family with him to enjoy the first view of the wonderful cavern he had discovered. They carried pine knots and a lighted torch, by which they made their way for some distance, but the torch was accidentally extinguished and they groped their way in darkness and missed the entrance. Without anything to guide them, they wandered in darkness for three days, and were almost dead when at last they stumbled upon the exit. This is the doorway of the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, one of the wonders of the world.

This was a terrible experience. The next persons who attempted to explore the new cave were better provisioned against the chance of spending some time underground. The pioneers found rich deposits of nitre in the "Great Cave," as they called it. Scientists visited it and explored many of its chambers. The reputation of this cavern has been spread by thousands of visitors who have come from all over the world to see it. The cave has not yet been completely explored. The regular tours, on which the guides conduct visitors, cover but a small part of the one hundred and fifty miles measured by the two hundred or more avenues. The pa.s.sages wind in and out, crossing each other, sometimes at different levels, and forming a network of avenues in which the unaccustomed traveller would surely be lost. The old guides know every inch of their regular course, and their quaint and edifying talk adds greatly to the pleasure of the visitors.

From the hotel, parties are organized for ten o'clock in the morning and seven o'clock in the evening. Each visitor is provided with a lard-oil lamp. The guide carries a flask of oil and plenty of matches. No special garb is necessary, though people usually dress for comfort, and wear easy shoes. The temperature of the cave is uniform winter and summer, varying between fifty-three and fifty-four degrees Fahrenheit.

The cave entrance is an arch of seventy-foot span in the hillside. A winding flight of seventy stone steps leads the party around a waterfall, into a great chamber under the rocks. Then the way goes through a narrow pa.s.sage, where the guide unlocks an iron gate to let them in. The visitors now leave all thoughts of daylight behind, for the breeze that put out their lights as they entered the cave is past, and they stand in the Rotunda, a vast high-ceilinged chamber, silent and impressive, with walls of creamy limestone, encrusted with gypsum, which has been stained black by manganese. From the vestibule on, each pa.s.sage and each room has a name, based upon some historic event or some fancied resemblance. The Giant's Coffin is a great kite-shaped rock lying in one of the rooms of the cave. The Star Chamber has a wonderful crystal-studded dome in which the guide produces the effect of a sunrise by burning coloured lights. Bonfires built at suitable points produce wonderful shadow effects, which are like nothing else in the world. The old saltpetre vats which the visitors pa.s.s in taking the "Long Route"

through the cave, point them back to the days during the War of 1812, when this valuable mineral was extracted from the earth in the floor of the cave. The industry greatly enriched the thrifty owners of the cave, but the works were abandoned after peace was declared.

It must be a wonderful experience to walk steadily for nine hours over the Long Route, for so pure is the air and so wonderful is the scenery that people rarely complain of fatigue when the experience is over.

There is no dust on the floors of these subterranean chambers, and they are not damp except near places where water trickles, here and there, in rivulets and cascades. Pools of water at the bottoms of pits so deep that a lighted torch requires several seconds to reach the bottom, and rivers and lakes of considerable size, show where some of the surface water goes to. A strange underground suction creates whirlpools in some of these streams. People go in boats holding twenty pa.s.sengers for a row on Echo River, and the guide dips up with a net the blind fish and crayfish and cave lizards which inhabit these subterranean waters. The echoes in various chambers of the Mammoth Cave are remarkable. In some of them a song by a single voice comes back with full chords, as if several voices carried the different parts. The single notes of flute and cornet are returned with the same beautiful harmonies. A pistol shot is given back a dozen times, the sound rebounding like a ball from rock to rock of the arching walls. The vibrations of the water made by the rower's paddles reecho in sounds like bell notes, and they are multiplied into harmonies that suggest the chimes in the belfry of a cathedral.

The walls of various chambers differ from each other according to the minerals that compose them. Some are creamy white limestone arches, some are walled with black gypsum, some are hung with great curtains of stalagmites, solid but suggesting the lightness and grace of folds of crepe. Under such hangings the floor is built up in stalact.i.tes. The mineral-laden water, the constant drip of which has produced a hanging, icicle-like stalagmite, has built up the stalact.i.te to meet it.

Probably nothing is more beautiful than the flower-like crystals that bloom all over the walls of a chamber called "Mary's Bower." The floor, even, sparkles with jewels that have fallen from the wonderful and delicate flower cl.u.s.ters built from deposits of the lime-laden water which goes on building and replacing the bits that fall. "Martha's Vineyard" is decorated with nodules, like bunches of grapes, that glisten as if the dew were on them. The white gypsum in some caves makes the walls look as if they were carved out of snow. Still others have clear, transparent crystals that make them gleam in the torches' light as if the walls were encrusted with diamonds.

The cave region of Indiana is also famous. The great Wyandotte Cave in Crawford County is the most noted of many similar caverns. In some of the chambers, bats are found clinging to the ceiling, heads downward, like swarms of bees. The caverns of Luray, in Virginia, are complex and wonderful in their structure, and famous for the beautiful stalact.i.tes and stalagmites they contain. But there is no cave in this country so wonderful and so grand in its dimensions as the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky.

LAND-BUILDING BY RIVERS

Once a year, when the rainy season comes in the mountainous country south of Egypt, the old Nile floods its banks and spreads its slimy waters over the land, covering the low plains to the very edge of the Sahara Desert. The people know it is coming, and are prepared for this flood. We should think such an overflow of our nearest river a monstrous calamity, but the Egyptians bless the river which blesses them. They know that without the Nile's overflow their country would be added to the Desert of Sahara. In a short time after the overflow, the river reaches its highest point and begins to ebb. Ca.n.a.ls lying parallel to its course are filled with water which is saved for use in the hot, dry summer. As the flood goes down, a deposit of slimy mud lies as a rich fertilizer on the land. It is this and the water which the earth has absorbed that make Egypt one of the most fertile agricultural countries in the world.

The region covered by the Nile's overflow is the flood plain of this river. On this plain the Pyramids, the Sphinx, and other famous monuments of Egypt stand. The statue of Rameses II. built 3,000 years ago, has its base buried nine feet deep in the rich soil made of Nile sediment. A well dug in this region goes through forty feet of this soil before striking the underlying sand. How many years ago did the first Nile overflow take place? We may begin our calculation by finding out the average yearly deposit. It is a slow process that acc.u.mulates but nine feet in 3,000 years. If you were in Egypt when the Nile went back into its banks, you would see that the sc.u.m it leaves in a single overflow adds not a great deal to the thickness of the soil. Possibly floods have varied in their deposits from year to year, so that any calculation of the time it took to build that forty feet of surface soil must be but a rough estimate. This much we know: it has been an uninterrupted process which has taken place within the present geological epoch, "the Age of Man."

Not all the rich sediment the Nile brings down is left on the level flood plain along its course. A vast quant.i.ty is dumped at the river's mouth, where the tides of the Mediterranean check the river's current.

Thus the great delta is formed. The broad river splits into many mouths that spread out like a fan and build higher and broader each year the mud-banks between the streams. Upper Egypt consists of river swamps.

Lower Egypt, from Cairo to the sea, is the delta built by the river itself on sea bottom. From the head of the delta, where the river commences to divide, to the sea, is an area of 10,000 square miles made out of material contributed by upper Egypt, and built by the river.

Layer upon layer, it is constantly forming, but most rapidly during the season of floods.

Coming closer home, let us look at the map of the Mississippi Valley.

Begin as far north as St. Louis. For the rest of its course the Mississippi River flows through a widening plain of swamp land, flooded in rainy seasons. Through this swampy flood plain the river meanders; its current, heavily loaded with sediment, swings from one side to the other of the channel, building up here, wearing away there, and straightening its course when the curves become so sharp that their sides meet. Then the current breaks through the thin wall, and a bayou of still water is left behind.

Below Baton Rouge the Mississippi breaks into many mouths, that spread and carry the water of the great river into the Gulf of Mexico. The Nile delta is triangular, like delta, [Greek: D], the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet; but the Mississippi's delta is very irregular. The main mouth of the river flows fifty miles out into the Gulf between mud-banks, narrow and low. At the tip it branches into several streams.

From the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf, the Mississippi flood plain covers 30,000 square miles. Over this area, sediment to an average depth of fifty feet has been laid down. In earlier times the river flooded this whole area, when freshets swelled its tributaries in the spring.

The flood plain then became a sea, in the middle of which the river's current flowed swiftly. The slow-flowing water on each side of the main current let go of its burden of sediment and formed a double ridge.

Between these two natural walls the main river flowed. When its level fell, two side streams, running parallel with the main river drained the flood plains on each side into the main tributaries to right and left.

These natural walls deposited when the river was in flood are called _levees_. Each heavy flood builds them higher, and the bed of the stream rises by deposits of sediment. So it happens that the level of the river bed is higher than the level of its flood plain.

This is an interesting fact in geology. But the people who have taken possession of the rich flood plain of the Mississippi River, who have built their homes there, drained and cultivated the land, and built cities and towns on the areas reclaimed from swamps, recognize the elevation of the river bed as the greatest danger that threatens them.

Suppose a flood should come. Even if it does not overflow the levees, it may break through the natural banks and thus overflow the cities and the farm lands to left and right.

Instead of living in constant fear of such a calamity, the people of the Mississippi flood plain have sought safety by making artificial levees, to make floods impossible. These are built upon the natural levees. As the river bed rises by the deposit of mud, the levees are built higher to contain the rising waters. No longer does the rich soil of the Mississippi flood plain receive layers of sediment from the river's overflow. The river very rarely breaks through a levee. The United States Government has spent great sums in walling in the river, and each state along its banks does its share toward paying for this self-protection.

By means of _jetties_ the river's current is directed into a straightened course, and its power is expended upon the work of deepening its own channel and carrying its sediment to the Gulf. Much as the river has been forced to do in cleaning its own main channel, dredging is needed at various harbours to keep the river deep enough for navigation. The forests of the mountain slopes in Colorado are being slaughtered, and the headwaters of the Missouri are carrying more and more rocky debris to choke the current of the Mississippi. Colorado soil is stolen to build land in the vast delta, which is pus.h.i.+ng out into the Gulf at the rate of six miles in a century--a mile in every sixteen years. The Mississippi delta measures 14,000 square miles. With the continued denuding of mountain slopes, we shall expect the rate of delta growth to be greatly increased, until reforesting checks the destructive work of wind and water.

THE MAKING OF MOUNTAINS

The gradual thickening and shrinking of the earth's crust as it cools have made the wrinkles we call mountain systems. Through millions of years the globe has been giving off heat to the cold sky s.p.a.ces through which it swings in its...o...b..t around the sun. The cooling caused the contraction of the outer layer to fit the shrinking of the ma.s.s. When a plump peach dries on its pit, the skin wrinkles down to fit the dried flesh. The fruit shrinks by loss of water, just as the face of an old person shrinks by loss of fat. The skin becomes wrinkled in both cases.

The weakest places in the earth's crust were the places to crumple, because they could not resist the lateral pressure that was exerted by the shrinking process. Along the sh.o.r.es of the ancient seas the rivers piled great burdens of sediment. This caused the thin crust to sink and to become a basin alongside of a ridge. The wearing away of the land in certain places lightened and weakened the crust at these places, so that it bent upward in a ridge.

Perhaps the first wrinkles were not very high and deep. The gradual cooling must have exerted continued pressure, and the wrinkles have become larger. It is not likely that new wrinkles would be formed as long as the old ones would crumple and draw up into narrower, steeper slopes, in response to the lateral crus.h.i.+ng.

We can imagine those first mountains rising as folds under the sea.

Gradually their bases were narrowed, and their crests lifted out of the water. They rose as long, narrow islands, and grew in size as time went on.

Why is the trend of the great mountain systems almost always north and south? Study the map of the continents and see how few cross ranges are shown, and how short they are, compared with the others. The molten globe bulged at its equator, as it rotated on its axis. The moon added its strong pulling force to make it bulge still more. As the crust thickened, it became less responsive to the two forces that caused it to bulge. The shrinkage was greatest where the globe had been most pulled out of shape. The rate of the earth's rotation is believed to have diminished. Every change tended to let the earth draw in its (imaginary) belt, a notch at a time. The forces of contraction acted along the line of the equator, and formed folds running toward the poles. In this early time the great mountain systems were born, and they grew in size gradually, from small beginnings.

These mountains of upheaval, made by the bending of the earth's crust, and the formation of alternating ridges and depressed valleys, are many.

The earth is old and much wrinkled. Other mountains have been formed by forces quite different. Volcanic mountains have been far more numerous in ages gone than they are now.

Mt. Hood and Mt. Rainier are peaks built up by the materials thrown out of the craters of volcanoes dead these thousands of years. Vesuvius is at present showing us how volcanic mountains are made. Each eruption builds larger the cone--that is, the chimney through which the molten rocks, the ashes, and the steam are ejected. Side craters may open, the main cone be broken and its form changed, but the ma.s.s of lava and stones and ashes grows with each eruption. The mountain grows by the additions it receives. aetna is a mountain built of lava.

A third mountain system grew, not by addition, but by subtraction. The Catskills ill.u.s.trate this type. This group of mountains is the remnant of a table-land made of level layers of red sandstone. The rest of the high plain has been cut down and carried away, leaving these picturesque hills, the survival of which is as much a mystery as the disappearance of the balance of the plateau of which they were once a part.

The fold that forms a typical mountain ridge has a cone of granite, the original rock foundation of the earth, and on this are layers of stratified rock, ancient deposits of sediment carried to the sea by streams. When exposed to wind and rain, the ridge is gradually worn down. In some places the water cuts away the soft rock and forms a stream-bed, that cuts deeper and deeper, using the rock fragments as its tools. Often the layers of aqueous rocks are cut through, and the granite exposed.

Sometimes the hardest stratified rock-beds resist the water and the wind and are left as a series of ridges along the sides of the main range.

The crumpling forces may crack the ridge open for its whole length, and one side of the chasm may slip down and the other go up. The result is a sheer wall of exposed rock strata, layers of which correspond with those that lie far below the top of the portion that slid down in the great upheaval and subsidence that parted them. These slips are known as _faults_.

THE LAVA FLOOD OF THE NORTHWEST

We know little about the substance that occupies the four thousand miles of distance between the surface and the centre of our earth. We know that the terrible weight borne by the central ma.s.s compresses it, so that the interior must grow denser as the core is approached. Scientists have weighed the earth, and tell us that the crust is lighter than the rest. The supposition is that there is a great deal of iron in the interior, and possibly precious metals, too.

Our deepest wells and mines go down about a mile, then digging stops, on account of the excessive heat. But the crumpling of the crust, and the wearing away of the folded strata by wind and running water, have laid bare rocks several miles in thickness on the slopes of mountains, and exposed the underlying granite, on which the first sedimentary rocks were deposited. On this granite lie stratified rocks, which are crystalline in texture. These are the beds, sometimes miles in depth, called _metamorphic_ rocks, formed by water, then transformed by heat.

The wearing away of rocks by wind and water has furnished the materials out of which the aqueous rocks have been made. Layers upon layers of sandstone, shales, limestone, and the like, are exposed when a river cuts a canyon through a plateau. The layered deposits of debris at the mouth of the river make new aqueous rocks out of old. Every sandy beach is sandstone in the making. This work is never ended.

In the early days the earth's crust often gaped open in a mighty crater and let a flood of lava overspread the surface. The ocean floor often received this flood of melted rock. In many places the same chimney opened again and again, each time spreading a new layer of lava on top of the old, so that the surface has several lava sheets overlying the aqueous strata.

If the hardened lava sheet proved a barrier to the rising tide of molten lava in the chimney it was often forced out in sheets between the layers of aqueous rocks. Wherever the heated material came into contact with aqueous rocks it transformed them, for a foot or more, into crystalline, metamorphic rocks.

A chimney of lava is called a _dike_. In mountainous countries dikes are common. Sometimes small, they may also be hundreds of feet across, often standing high above the softer strata, which rains have worn away. Dikes often look like ruined walls, and may be traced for miles where they have been overturned in the mountain-making process.