A Literary History of the Arabs Part 52

[379] Mas'udi, _Muruju 'l-Dhahab_, v, 419 seq.

[380] Ibnu 'l-Athir, ed. by Tornberg, v, 46. _Cf._ _Agani_, xx, p. 119, l. 23. 'Umar made an exception, as Professor Bevan reminds me, in favour of the poet Jarir. See Brockelmann's _Gesch. der Arab. Litteratur_, vol.

i, p. 57.

[381] The exhaustive researches of Wellhausen, _Das Arabische Reich und sein Sturz_ (pp. 169-192) have set this complicated subject in a new light. He contends that 'Umar's reform was not based on purely ideal grounds, but was demanded by the necessities of the case, and that, so far from introducing disorder into the finances, his measures were designed to remedy the confusion which already existed.

[382] Mas'udi, _Muruju 'l-Dhahab_, v, 479.

[383] The Arabic text and literal translation of these verses will be found in my article on Abu 'l-'Ala's _Risalatu 'l-Ghufran_ (_J.R.A.S._ for 1902, pp. 829 and 342).

[384] Wellhausen, _Das Arabische Reich und sein Sturz_, p. 38.

[385] _I.e._, the main body of Moslems--_Sunnis_, followers of the _Sunna_, as they were afterwards called--who were neither s.h.i.+'ites nor Kharijites, but held (1) that the Caliph must be elected by the Moslem community, and (2) that he must be a member of Quraysh, the Prophet's tribe. All these parties arose out of the struggle between 'Ali and Mu'awiya, and their original difference turned solely on the question of the Caliphate.

[386] Brunnow, _Die Charidschiten unter den ersten Omayyaden_ (Leiden, 1884), p. 28. It is by no means certain, however, that the Kharijites called themselves by this name. In any case, the term implies _secession_ (_khuruj_) from the Moslem community, and may be rendered by 'Seceder' or 'Nonconformist.'

[387] _Cf._ Koran, ix, 112.

[388] Brunnow, _op. cit._, p. 8.

[389] Wellhausen, _Die religios-politischen Oppositionsparteien im alten Islam_ (_Abhandlungen der Konigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen_, _Phil.-Hist. Kla.s.se_, 1901), p. 8 sqq. The writer argues against Brunnow that the oldest Kharijites were not true Bedouins (_A'rabi_), and were, in fact, even further removed than the rest of the military colonists of Kufa and Ba?ra from their Bedouin traditions.

He points out that the extreme piety of the Readers--their constant prayers, vigils, and repet.i.tions of the Koran--exactly agrees with what is related of the Kharijites, and is described in similar language.

Moreover, among the oldest Kharijites we find mention made of a company clad in long cloaks (_baranis_, pl. of _burnus_), which were at that time a special mark of asceticism. Finally, the earliest authority (Abu Mikhnaf in ?abari, i, 3330, l. 6 sqq.) regards the Kharijites as an offshoot from the Readers, and names individual Readers who afterwards became rabid Kharijites.

[390] Later, when many non-Arab Moslems joined the Kharijite ranks the field of choice was extended so as to include foreigners and even slaves.

[391] ?abari, ii, 40, 13 sqq.

[392] Shahrastani, ed. by Cureton, Part I, p. 88. l. 12.

[393] _Ibid._, p. 86, l. 3 from foot.

[394] ?abari, ii, 36, ll. 7, 8, 11-16.

[395] _?amasa_, 44.

[396] Ibn Khallikan, ed. by Wustenfeld, No. 555, p. 55, l. 4 seq.; De Slane's translation, vol. ii, p. 523.

[397] Dozy, _Essai sur l'histoire de l'Islamisme_ (French translation by Victor Chauvin), p. 219 sqq.

[398] Wellhausen thinks that the dogmatics of the s.h.i.+'ites are derived from Jewish rather than from Persian sources. See his account of the Saba'ites in his most instructive paper, to which I have already referred, _Die religios-politischen Oppositionsparteien im alten Islam_ (_Abh. der Konig. Ges. der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen_, _Phil.-Hist.

Kla.s.se_, 1901), p. 89 sqq.

[399] ?abari, i, 2942, 2.

[400] "_Verily, He who hath ordained the Koran for thee_ (_i.e._, for Mu?ammad) _will bring thee back to a place of return_" (_i.e._, to Mecca). The ambiguity of the word meaning 'place of return' (_ma'ad_) gave some colour to Ibn Saba's contention that it alluded to the return of Mu?ammad at the end of the world. The descent of Jesus on earth is reckoned by Moslems among the greater signs which will precede the Resurrection.

[401] This is a Jewish idea. 'Ali stands in the same relation to Mu?ammad as Aaron to Moses.

[402] ?abari, _loc. cit._

[403] Shahrastani, ed. by Cureton, p. 132, l. 15.

[404] _Aghani_, viii, 32, l. 17 sqq. The three sons of 'Ali are ?asan, ?usayn, and Mu?ammad Ibnu 'l-?anafiyya.

[405] Concerning the origin of these sects see Professor Browne's _Lit.

Hist. of Persia_, vol. i, p. 295 seq.

[406] See Darmesteter's interesting essay, _Le Mahdi depuis les origines de l'Islam jusqu'a nos jours_ (Paris, 1885). The subject is treated more scientifically by Snouck Hurgronje in his paper _Der Mahdi_, reprinted from the _Revue coloniale internationale_ (1886).

[407] _?iddiq_ means 'veracious.' Professor Bevan remarks that in this root the notion of 'veracity' easily pa.s.ses into that of 'endurance,' 'fort.i.tude.'

[408] ?abari, ii, 546. These 'Penitents' were free Arabs of Kufa, a fact which, as Wellhausen has noticed, would seem to indicate that the _ta'ziya_ is Semitic in origin.

[409] Wellhausen, _Die religios-politischen Oppositionsparteien_, p. 79.

[410] ?abari, ii, 650, l. 7 sqq.

[411] Shahrastani, Haarbrucker's translation, Part I, p. 169.

[412] Von Kremer, _Culturgeschicht_. _Streifzuge_, p. 2 sqq.

[413] The best account of the early Murjites that has. .h.i.therto appeared is contained in a paper by Van Vloten, ent.i.tled _Irdja_ (_Z.D.M.G._, vol. 45, p. 161 sqq.). The reader may also consult Shahrastani, Haarbrucker's trans., Part I, p. 156 sqq.; Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_, Part II, p. 89 sqq.; Van Vloten, _La domination Arabe_, p. 31 seq.

[414] Van Vloten thinks that in the name 'Murjite' (_murji'_) there is an allusion to Koran, ix, 107: "_And others are remanded (murjawna) until G.o.d shall decree; whether He shall punish them or take pity on them--for G.o.d is knowing and wise._"

[415] _Cf._ the poem of Thabit Qu?na (_Z.D.M.G._, _loc. cit._, p.

162), which states the whole Murjite doctrine in popular form. The author, who was himself a Murjite, lived in Khurasan during the latter half of the first century A.H.

[416] Van Vloten, _La domination Arabe_, p. 29 sqq.

[417] Ibn ?azm, cited in _Z.D.M.G._, vol. 45, p. 169, n. 7. Jahm ( about 747 A.D.) was a Persian, as might be inferred from the boldness of his speculations.

[418] ?asan himself inclined for a time to the doctrine of free-will, but afterwards gave it up (Ibn Qutayba, _Kitabu 'l-Ma'arif_, p. 225). He is said to have held that everything happens by fate, except sin (_Al-Mu'tazilah_, ed. by T. W. Arnold, p. 12, l. 3 from foot). See, however, Shahrastani, Haarbrucker's trans., Part I, p. 46.

[419] Koran, lxxiv, 41.

[420] _Ibid._, xli, 46.

[421] _Kitabu 'l-Ma'arif_, p. 301. Those who held the doctrine of free-will were called the Qadarites (_al-Qadariyya_), from _qadar_ (power), which may denote (1) the power of G.o.d to determine human actions, and (2) the power of man to determine his own actions. Their opponents a.s.serted that men act under compulsion (_jabr_); hence they were called the Jabarites (_al-Jabariyya_).

[422] As regards Ghaylan see _Al-Mu'tazilah_, ed. by T. W. Arnold, p.

15, l. 16 sqq.

[423] Ibn Khallikan, De Slane's translation, vol. iii, p. 642; Shahrastani, trans. by Haarbrucker, Part I, p. 44.

[424] Sha'rani, _Lawaqihu 'l-Anwar_ (Cairo, 1299 A.H.), p. 31.

[425] _Ibid._