The Student's Elements of Geology Part 18

On comparing the grinding surfaces of the corresponding molars of the three species of elephants, Figures 93, 94, 95 it will be seen that the folds of enamel are most numerous in the mammoth, fewer and wider, or more open, in E.

antiquus; and most open and fewest in E. meridionalis. It will be also seen that the enamel in the molar of the Rhinoceros tichorhinus (Figure 97), is much thicker than in that of the Rhinoceros leptorhinus (Figure 96).

CHAPTER XI.

POST-PLIOCENE PERIOD, CONTINUED.-- GLACIAL CONDITIONS. (As to the former excess of cold, whether brought about by modifications in the height and distribution of the land or by altered astronomical conditions, see Principles volume 1 10th edition 1867 chapters 12 and 13 "Vicissitudes of Climate.")

Geographical Distribution, Form, and Characters of Glacial Drift.

Fundamental Rocks, polished, grooved, and scratched.

Abrading and striating Action of Glaciers.

Moraines, Erratic Blocks, and "Roches Moutonnees."

Alpine Blocks on the Jura.

Continental Ice of Greenland.

Ancient Centres of the Dispersion of Erratics.

Transportation of Drift by floating Icebergs.

Bed of the Sea furrowed and polished by the running aground of floating Ice- islands.

CHARACTER AND DISTRIBUTION OF GLACIAL DRIFT.

In speaking of the loose transported matter commonly found on the surface of the land in all parts of the globe, I alluded to the exceptional character of what has been called the boulder formation in the temperate and Arctic lat.i.tudes of the northern hemisphere. The peculiarity of its form in Europe north of the 50th, and in North America north of the 40th parallel of lat.i.tude, is now universally attributed to the action of ice, and the difference of opinion respecting it is now chiefly restricted to the question whether land-ice or floating icebergs have played the chief part in its distribution. It is wanting in the warmer and equatorial regions, and reappears when we examine the lands which lie south of the 40th and 50th parallels in the southern hemisphere, as, for example, in Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and New Zealand. It consists of sand and clay, sometimes stratified, but often wholly devoid of stratification for a depth of 50, 100, or even a greater number of feet. To this unstratified form of the deposit the name of TILL has long been applied in Scotland. It generally contains a mixture of angular and rounded fragments of rock, some of large size, having occasionally one or more of their sides flattened and smoothed, or even highly polished. The smoothed surfaces usually exhibit many scratches parallel to each other, one set of which often crosses an older set.

The till is almost everywhere wholly devoid of organic remains, except those washed into it from older formations, though in some places it contains marine sh.e.l.ls, usually of northern or Arctic species, and frequently in a fragmentary state. The bulk of the till has usually been derived from the grinding down into mud of rocks in the immediate neighbourhood, so that it is red in a region of Red Sandstone, as in Strathmore in Forfars.h.i.+re; grey or black in a district of coal and bituminous shale, as around Edinburgh; and white in a chalk country, as in parts of Norfolk and Denmark. The stony fragments dispersed irregularly through the till usually belong, especially in mountainous countries, to rocks found in some part of the same hydrographical basin; but there are regions where the whole of the boulder clay has come from a distance, and huge blocks, or "erratics," as they have been called, many feet in diameter, have not unfrequently travelled hundreds of miles from their point of departure, or from the parent rocks from which they have evidently been detached. These are commonly angular, and have often one or more of their sides polished and furrowed.

The rock on which the boulder formation reposes, if it consists of granite, gneiss, marble, or other hard stone, capable of permanently retaining any superficial markings which may have been imprinted upon it, is usually smoothed or polished, like the erratics above described, and exhibits parallel striae and furrows having a determinate direction. This direction, both in Europe and North America, agrees generally in a marked manner with the course taken by the erratic blocks in the same district. The boulder clay, when it was first studied, seemed in many of its characters so singular and anomalous, that geologists despaired of ever being able to interpret the phenomena by reference to causes now in action. In those exceptional cases where marine sh.e.l.ls of the same date as the boulder clay were found, nearly all of them were recognised as living species-- a fact conspiring with the superficial position of the drift to indicate a comparatively modern origin.

The term "diluvium" was for a time the most popular name of the boulder formation, because it was referred by many to the deluge of Noah, while others retained the name as expressive of their opinion that a series of diluvial waves raised by hurricanes and storms, or by earthquakes, or by the sudden upheaval of land from the bed of the sea, had swept over the continents, carrying with them vast ma.s.ses of mud and heavy stones, and forcing these stones over rocky surfaces so as to polish and imprint upon them long furrows and striae. But geologists were not long in seeing that the boulder formation was characteristic of high lat.i.tudes, and that on the whole the size and number of erratic blocks increases as we travel towards the Arctic regions. They could not fail to be struck with the contrast which the countries bordering the Baltic presented when compared with those surrounding the Mediterranean. The mult.i.tude of travelled blocks and striated rocks in the one region, and the absence of such appearances in the other, were too obvious to be overlooked. Even the great development of the boulder formation, with large erratics so far south as the Alps, offered an exception to the general rule favourable to the hypothesis that there was some intimate connection between it and acc.u.mulations of snow and ice.

TRANSPORTING AND ABRADING POWER OF GLACIERS.

(FIGURE 106. Limestone, polished, furrowed, and scratched by the glacier of Rosenlau in Switzerland. (Aga.s.siz.) a a. White streaks or scratches, caused by small grains of flint frozen into the ice.

b b. Furrows.)

I have described elsewhere ("Principles" volume 1 chapter 16 1867) the manner in which the snow of the Alpine heights is prevented from acc.u.mulating indefinitely in thickness by the constant descent of a large portion of it by gravitation.

Becoming converted into ice it forms what are termed glaciers, which glide down the princ.i.p.al valleys. On their surface are seen mounds of rubbish or large heaps of sand and mud, with angular fragments of rock which fall from the steep slopes or precipices bounding the glaciers. When a glacier, thus laden, descends so far as to reach a region about 3500 feet above the level of the sea, the warmth of the air is such that it melts rapidly in summer, and all the mud, sand, and pieces of rock are slowly deposited at its lower end, forming a confused heap of unstratified rubbish called a MORAINE, and resembling the TILL before described.

Besides the blocks thus carried down on the top of the glacier, many fall through fissures in the ice to the bottom, where some of them become firmly frozen into the ma.s.s, and are pushed along the base of the glacier, abrading, polis.h.i.+ng, and grooving the rocky floor below, as a diamond cuts gla.s.s, or as emery-powder polishes steel. The striae which are made, and the deep grooves which are scooped out by this action, are rectilinear and parallel to an extent never seen in those produced on loose stones or rocks, where s.h.i.+ngle is hurried along by a torrent, or by the waves on a sea-beach. In addition to these polished, striated, and grooved surfaces of rock, another mark of the former action of a glacier is the "roche moutonnee." Projecting eminences of rock so called have been smoothed and worn into the shape of flattened domes by the glacier as it pa.s.sed over them. They have been traced in the Alps to great heights above the present glaciers, and to great horizontal distances beyond them.

ALPINE BLOCKS ON THE JURA.

The moraines, erratics, polished surfaces, domes, and striae, above described, are observed in the great valley of Switzerland, fifty miles broad; and almost everywhere on the Jura, a chain which lies to the north of this valley. The average height of the Jura is about one-third that of the Alps, and it is now entirely dest.i.tute of glaciers; yet it presents almost everywhere similar moraines, and the same polished and grooved surfaces. The erratics, moreover, which cover it, present a phenomenon which has astonished and perplexed the geologist for more than half a century. No conclusion can be more incontestable than that these angular blocks of granite, gneiss, and other crystalline formations came from the Alps, and that they have been brought for a distance of fifty miles and upward across one of the widest and deepest valleys in the world; so that they are now lodged on a chain composed of limestone and other formations, altogether distinct from those of the Alps. Their great size and angularity, after a journey of so many leagues, has justly excited wonder; for hundreds of them are as large as cottages; and one in particular, composed of gneiss, celebrated under the name of Pierre a Bot, rests on the side of a hill about 900 feet above the lake of Neufchatel, and is no less than 40 feet in diameter.

In the year 1821, M. Venetz first announced his opinion that the Alpine glaciers must formerly have extended far beyond their present limits, and the proofs appealed to by him in confirmation of this doctrine were acknowledged by all subsequent observers, and greatly strengthened by new observations and arguments. M. Charpentier supposed that when the glaciers extended continuously from the Alps to the Jura, the former mountains were 2000 or 3000 feet higher than at present. Other writers, on the contrary, conjectured that the whole country had been submerged, and the moraines and erratic blocks transported on floating icebergs; but a careful study of the distribution of the travelled ma.s.ses, and the total absence of marine sh.e.l.ls from the old glacial drift of Switzerland, have entirely disproved this last hypothesis. In addition to the many evidences of the action of ice in the northern parts of Europe which we have already mentioned, there occur here and there in some of these countries, what are wanting in Switzerland, deposits of marine fossil sh.e.l.ls, which exhibit so arctic a character that they must have led the geologist to infer the former prevalence of a much colder climate, even had he not encountered so many accompanying signs of ice-action. The same marine sh.e.l.ls demonstrate the submergence of large areas in Scandinavia and the British Isles, during the glacial cold.

A characteristic feature of the deposits under consideration in all these countries is the occurrence of large erratic blocks, and sometimes of moraine matter, in situations remote from lofty mountains, and separated from the nearest points where the parent rocks appear at the surface by great intervening valleys, or arms of the sea. We also often observe striae and furrows, as in Norway, Sweden, and Scotland, which deviate from the direction which they ought to follow if they had been connected with the present line of drainage, and they, therefore, imply the prevalence of a very distinct condition of things at the time when the cold was most intense. The actual state of North Greenland seems to afford the best explanation of such abnormal glacial markings.

GREENLAND CONTINENTAL ICE.

Greenland is a vast unexplored continent, buried under one continuous and colossal ma.s.s of ice that is always moving seaward, a very small part of it in an easterly direction, and all the rest westward, or towards Baffin's Bay. All the minor ridges and valleys are levelled and concealed under a general covering of snow, but here and there some steep mountains protrude abruptly from the icy slope, and a few superficial lines of stones or moraines are visible at certain seasons, when no snow has fallen for many months, and when evaporation, promoted by the wind and sun, has caused much of the upper snow to disappear. The height of this continent is unknown, but it must be very great, as the most elevated lands of the outskirts, which are described as comparatively low, attain alt.i.tudes of 4000 to 6000 feet. The icy slope gradually lowers itself towards the outskirts, and then terminates abruptly in a ma.s.s about 2000 feet in thickness, the great discharge of ice taking place through certain large friths, which, at their upper ends, are usually about four miles across. Down these friths the ice is protruded in huge ma.s.ses, several miles wide, which continue their course-- grating along the rocky bottom like ordinary glaciers long after they have reached the salt water. When at last they arrive at parts of Baffin's Bay deep enough to buoy up icebergs from 1000 to 1500 feet in vertical thickness, broken ma.s.ses of them float off, carrying with them on their surface not only fine mud and sand but large stones. These fragments of rock are often polished and scored on one or more sides, and as the ice melts, they drop down to the bottom of the sea, where large quant.i.ties of mud are deposited, and this muddy bottom is inhabited by many mollusca.

Although the direction of the ice-streams in Greenland may coincide in the main with that which separate glaciers would take if there were no more ice than there is now in the Swiss Alps, yet the striation of the surface of the rocks on an ice-clad continent would, on the whole, vary considerably in its minor details from that which would be imprinted on rocks const.i.tuting a region of separate glaciers. For where there is a universal covering of ice there will be a general outward movement from the higher and more central regions towards the circ.u.mference and lower country, and this movement will be, to a certain extent, independent of the minor inequalities of hill and valley, when these are all reduced to one level by the snow. The moving ice may sometimes cross even at right angles deep narrow ravines, or the crests of buried ridges, on which last it may afterwards seem strange to detect glacial striae and polis.h.i.+ng after the liquefaction of the snow and ice has taken place.

Rink mentions that in North Greenland powerful springs of clayey water escape in winter from under the ice, where it descends to "the outskirts," and where, as already stated, it is often 2000 feet thick-- a fact showing how much grinding action is going on upon the surface of the subjacent rocks. I also learn from Dr. Torell that there are large areas in the outskirts, now no longer covered with permanent snow or glaciers, which exhibit on their surface unmistakable signs of ancient ice-action, so that, vast as is the power now exerted by ice in Greenland, it must once have operated on a still grander scale. The land, though now very elevated, may perhaps have been formerly much higher. It is well-known that the south coast of Greenland, from lat.i.tude 60 degrees to about 70 degrees north, has for the last four centuries been sinking at the rate of several feet in a century. By this means a surface of rock, well scored and polished by ice, is now slowly subsiding beneath the sea, and is becoming strewed over, as the icebergs melt, with impalpable mud and smoothed and scratched stones. It is not precisely known how far north this downward movement extends.

DRIFT CARRIED BY ICEBERGS.

An account was given so long ago as the year 1822, by Scoresby, of icebergs seen by him in the Arctic seas drifting along in lat.i.tudes 69 and 70 degrees north, which rose above the surface from 100 to 200 feet, and some of which measured a mile in circ.u.mference. Many of them were loaded with beds of earth and rock, of such thickness that the weight was conjectured to be from 50,000 to 100,000 tons. A similar transportation of rocks is known to be in progress in the southern hemisphere, where boulders included in ice are far more frequent than in the north. One of these icebergs was encountered in 1839, in mid-ocean, in the antarctic regions, many hundred miles from any known land, sailing northward, with a large erratic block firmly frozen into it. Many of them, carefully measured by the officers of the French exploring expedition of the Astrolabe, were between 100 and 225 feet high above water, and from two to five miles in length. Captain d'Urville ascertained one of them which he saw floating in the Southern Ocean to be 13 miles long and 100 feet high, with walls perfectly vertical. The submerged portions of such islands must, according to the weight of ice relatively to sea-water, be from six to eight times more considerable than the part which is visible, so that when they are once fairly set in motion, the mechanical force which they might exert against any obstacle standing in their way would be prodigious.

We learn, therefore, from a study both of the arctic and antarctic regions, that a great extent of land may be entirely covered throughout the whole year by snow and ice, from the summits of the loftiest mountains to the sea-coast, and may yet send down angular erratics to the ocean. We may also conclude that such land will become in the course of ages almost everywhere scored and polished like the rocks which underlie a glacier. The discharge of ice into the surrounding sea will take place princ.i.p.ally through the main valleys, although these are hidden from our sight. Erratic blocks and moraine matter will be dispersed somewhat irregularly after reaching the sea, for not only will prevailing winds and marine currents govern the distribution of the drift, but the shape of the submerged area will have its influence; inasmuch as floating ice, laden with stones, will pa.s.s freely through deep water, while it will run a ground where there are reefs and shallows. Some icebergs in Baffin's Bay have been seen stranded on a bottom 1000 or even 1500 feet deep. In the course of ages such a sea-bed may become densely covered with transported matter, from which some of the adjoining greater depths may be free. If, as in West Greenland, the land is slowly sinking, a large extent of the bottom of the ocean will consist of rock polished and striated by land-ice, and then overspread by mud and boulders detached from melting bergs.

The mud, sand, and boulders thus let fall in still water must be exactly like the moraines of terrestrial glaciers, devoid of stratification and organic remains. But occasionally, on the outer side of such packs of stranded bergs, the waves and currents may cause the detached earthy and stony materials to be sorted according to size and weight before they reach the bottom, and to acquire a stratified arrangement.

I have already alluded to the large quant.i.ty of ice, containing great blocks of stone, which is sometimes seen floating far from land, in the southern or Antarctic seas. After the emergence, therefore, of such a submarine area, the superficial detritus will have no necessary relation to the hills, valleys, and river-plains over which it will be scattered. Many a water-shed may intervene between the starting-point of each erratic or pebble and its final resting- place, and the only means of discovering the country from which it took its departure will consist in a careful comparison of its mineral or fossil contents with those of the parent rocks.

CHAPTER XII.

POST-PLIOCENE PERIOD, CONTINUED.-- GLACIAL CONDITIONS, CONCLUDED.

Glaciation of Scandinavia and Russia.

Glaciation of Scotland.

Mammoth in Scotch Till.

Marine Sh.e.l.ls in Scotch Glacial Drift.

Their Arctic Character.

Rarity of Organic Remains in Glacial Deposits.

Contorted Strata in Drift.

Glaciation of Wales, England, and Ireland.

Marine Sh.e.l.ls of Moel Tryfaen.

Erratics near Chichester.

Glacial Formations of North America.

Many Species of Testacea and Quadrupeds survived the Glacial Cold.

Connection of the Predominance of Lakes with Glacial Action.

Action of Ice in preventing the silting up of Lake-basins.

Absence of Lakes in the Caucasus.

Equatorial Lakes of Africa.

GLACIATION OF SCANDINAVIA AND RUSSIA.

In large tracts of Norway and Sweden, where there have been no glaciers in historical times, the signs of ice-action have been traced as high as 6000 feet above the level of the sea. These signs consist chiefly of polished and furrowed rock-surfaces, of moraines and erratic blocks. The direction of the erratics, like that of the furrows, has usually been conformable to the course of the princ.i.p.al valleys; but the lines of both sometimes radiate outward in all directions from the highest land, in a manner which is only explicable by the hypothesis above alluded to of a general envelope of continental ice, like that of Greenland (Chapter 11.) Some of the far-transported blocks have been carried from the central parts of Scandinavia towards the Polar regions; others southward to Denmark; some south-westward, to the coast of Norfolk in England; others south-eastward, to Germany, Poland, and Russia.

In the immediate neighbourhood of Upsala, in Sweden, I had observed, in 1834, a ridge of stratified sand and gravel, in the midst of which occurs a layer of marl, evidently formed originally at the bottom of the Baltic, by the slow growth of the mussel, c.o.c.kle, and other marine sh.e.l.ls of living species, intermixed with some proper to fresh water. The marine sh.e.l.ls are all of dwarfish size, like those now inhabiting the brackish waters of the Baltic; and the marl, in which many of them are imbedded, is now raised more than 100 feet above the level of the Gulf of Bothnia. Upon the top of this ridge repose several huge erratics, consisting of gneiss for the most part unrounded, from nine to sixteen feet in diameter, and which must have been brought into their present position since the time when the neighbouring gulf was already characterised by its peculiar fauna. Here, therefore, we have proof that the transport of erratics continued to take place, not merely when the sea was inhabited by the existing testacea, but when the north of Europe had already a.s.sumed that remarkable feature of its physical geography which separates the Baltic from the North Sea, and causes the Gulf of Bothnia to have only one- fourth of the saltness belonging to the ocean. In Denmark, also, recent sh.e.l.ls have been found in stratified beds, closely a.s.sociated with the boulder clay.

GLACIATION OF SCOTLAND.

Mr. T.F. Jamieson, in 1858, adduced a great body of facts to prove that the Grampians once sent down glaciers from the central regions in all directions towards the sea. "The glacial grooves," he observed, "radiate outward from the central heights towards all points of the compa.s.s, though they do not always strictly conform to the actual shape and contour of the minor valleys and ridges."

These facts and other characteristics of the Scotch drift lead us to the inference that when the glacial cold first set in, Scotland stood higher above the sea than at present, and was covered for the most part with snow and ice, as Greenland is now. This sheet of land-ice sliding down to lower levels, ground down and polished the subjacent rocks, sweeping off nearly all superficial deposits of older date, and leaving only till and boulders in their place. To this continental state succeeded a period of depression and partial submergence.

The sea advanced over the lower lands, and Scotland was converted into an archipelago, some marine sand with sh.e.l.ls being spread over the bottom of the sea. On this sand a great ma.s.s of boulder clay usually quite devoid of fossils was acc.u.mulated. Lastly, the land re-emerged from the water, and, reaching a level somewhat above its present height, became connected with the continent of Europe, glaciers being formed once more in the higher regions, though the ice probably never regained its former extension. (Jamieson Quarterly Geological Journal 1860 volume 16 page 370.) After all these changes, there were some minor oscillations in the level of the land, on which, although they have had important geographical consequences, separating Ireland from England, for example, and England from the Continent, we need not here enlarge.

MAMMOTH IN SCOTCH TILL.