The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria Part 53

Sabitum then tells Gilgamesh that there is one possibility of his accomplis.h.i.+ng his task. If Ardi-Ea,[925] the ferryman[926] of Parnapishtim, will take Gilgamesh across, well and good; if not, he must abandon all hope.

The ocean, though not expressly called _Apsu_, is evidently identical with the great body of waters supposed to both surround the earth and to flow beneath it.[927] The reference to 'the waters of death' thus becomes clear. The gathering-place of the dead being under the earth, near to the _Apsu_, the great 'Okeanos' forms a means of approach to the nether world. It is into this ocean, forming part of the _Apsu_, that the sun dips at evening and through which it pa.s.ses during the night.

The scene between Gilgamesh and Sabitum accordingly is suggested, in part, by the same cosmological conceptions that condition the description of the mountain Mashu.

Sabitum herself is a figure that still awaits satisfactory explanation.

She is called the G.o.ddess Siduri.[928] The name of this G.o.ddess is found as an element in proper names, but of her traits we know nothing.

Sabitum appears originally to have been a term descriptive of her, and Hommel[929] may be right in explaining the name as 'the one from Sabu,'[930] and in taking the latter as the name of a district in Arabia. It is tempting to think of the famous Saba in Southern Arabia.

Obedient to the advice of Sabitum, Gilgamesh tells Ardi-Ea his story and also his desire.

Now Ardi-Ea, which is the way to [Parnapishtim?].

If it is possible, let me cross the ocean, And if not possible, let me lie outstretched on the ground.

Ardi-Ea consents, and tells Gilgamesh to take his ax, to go into the woods, and to cut down a large pole that may serve as a rudder.

Gilgamesh, upon hearing this, Takes an ax in his hand, ...

Goes to the wood and makes a rudder five gar[931] long.

Gilgamesh and Ardi-Ea mount the s.h.i.+p.

The s.h.i.+p tosses from side to side.

After a course of one month and fifteen days, on the third day[932]

Ardi-Ea reaches the waters of death.

This appears to be the most dangerous part of the voyage. Ardi-Ea urges Gilgamesh to cling to the rudder, and counts the strokes he is to take.[933] The waters are not extensive, for only twelve strokes are enumerated; but the current is so strong that it is with the utmost difficulty that Gilgamesh succeeds in pa.s.sing through them. At last, Gilgamesh is face to face with Parnapishtim. The latter is astonished to see a living person come across the waters. Gilgamesh addresses Parnapishtim from the s.h.i.+p, recounts his deeds, among which we distinguish[934] the killing of a panther, of Alu, of the divine bull, and of Khumbaba. The death of Eabani is also dwelt upon, and then Gilgamesh pleads with Parnapishtim, tells him of the long, difficult way that he has traveled, and of all that he has encountered on the road.

Difficult lands I pa.s.sed through, All seas I crossed.

Parnapishtim expresses his sympathy:

Gilgamesh has filled his heart with woe, But neither G.o.ds nor men [can help him (?)].

Parnapishtim thereupon addresses Gilgamesh, showing him how impossible it is for any mortal to escape death. The inexorable law will prevail as long as 'houses continue to be built,' as long as 'friends.h.i.+ps' and 'hostilities' prevail, as long 'as the waters fill (?) the sea.' The Anunnaki, the great G.o.ds, and the G.o.ddess Mammitum, the creators of everything

Determine death and life.

No one knows the days of death.[935]

At this point Gilgamesh propounds a most natural question: How comes it, if what Parnapishtim says is true, that the latter is alive, while possessing all the traits of a human being? The eleventh tablet of the epic begins:

Gilgamesh speaks to him, to Parnapishtim, the far-removed: "I gaze at thee in amazement, Parnapishtim.

Thy appearance is normal. As I am, so art thou.

Thy entire nature[936] is normal. As I am, so art thou.

Thou art completely equipped for the fray.[937]

Armor[938] (?) thou hast placed upon thee.

Tell me how thou didst come to obtain eternal life among the G.o.ds."

In reply, Parnapishtim tells the story of his escape from the common fate of mankind. The story is a long one and has no connection with the career of Gilgamesh. It embodies a recollection of a rain-storm that once visited a city, causing a general destruction, but from which Parnapishtim and his family miraculously escaped. The main purport of the tale is not to emphasize this miracle, but the far greater one that, after having been saved from the catastrophe, Parnapishtim should also have been granted immortal life. The moral, however, is that the exception proves the rule. With this tradition of the destruction of a certain place, there has been combined a nature myth symbolizing the annual overflow of the Euphrates, and the temporary disappearance of all land that this inundation brought about, prior to the elaborate ca.n.a.l system that was developed in the valley. It is the same myth that we have come across in the creation epic and which, as we have seen, was instrumental in moulding the advanced cosmological conceptions of the Babylonians.

In Parnapishtim's tale, the myth is given a more popular form. There is no attempt made to impart a scholastic interpretation to it. In keeping with what we have seen to be the general character of the Gilgamesh epic, the episode introduced at this point embodies popular traditions and, on the whole, popular conceptions. The spirit of the whole epic is the same that we find in the Thousand and One Nights or in the Arabian romance of Antar.

The oriental love of story-telling has produced the Gilgamesh epic and, like a true story, it grows in length, the oftener it is told. Gilgamesh is merely a peg upon which various current traditions and myths are hung. Hence the combination of Gilgamesh's adventures with those of Eabani, and hence also the a.s.sociation of Gilgamesh with Parnapishtim. A trace, perhaps, of scholastic influence may be seen in the purport of Parnapishtim's narrative to prove the hopelessness of man's securing immortality; and yet, while the theology of the schools may thus have had some share in giving to the tale of Parnapishtim its present shape, the problem presented by Gilgamesh's adventures is a popular rather than a scholastic one. Even to the primitive mind, for whom life rather than death const.i.tutes the great mystery to be solved, the question would suggest itself whether death is an absolutely necessary phase through which man must pa.s.s. The sun, moon, and stars do not die, the streams have perpetual life; and since all manifestations of life were looked at from one point of view, why should not man also remain alive? Beyond some touches in the narrative, we may, therefore, regard Parnapishtim's story, together with the 'lesson' it teaches, as an interesting trace of the early theology as it took shape in the popular mind. What adds interest to the story that Parnapishtim tells, is its close resemblance to the Biblical story of the Deluge. It also recalls the destruction of Sodom, and we shall have occasion[939] to show the significance of these points of contact. Bearing in mind the independent character of the Parnapishtim episode, and the motives that led to its being incorporated in the adventures of Gilgamesh, we may proceed with our a.n.a.lysis of this interesting eleventh tablet. Thanks to the labors of Haupt, the numerous fragments of it representing several copies, have been pieced together so as to form an almost complete text.[940] In reply to Gilgamesh's queries,

Parnapishtim spoke to Gilgamesh: "I will tell thee, Gilgamesh, the secret story, And the secret of the G.o.ds I will tell thee.

The city Shurippak, a city which, as thou knowest, Lies on the Euphrates, That city was old,[941] for the G.o.ds thereof, Decided to bring a rainstorm upon it.

All of the great G.o.ds, Anu, their father, Their counsellor, the warrior Bel, The herald Ninib, Their leader En-nugi, The lord of unsearchable wisdom, Ea, was with them, To proclaim their resolve to the reed-huts.

Reed-hut, reed-hut, wall, wall!

Reed-hut, hear! Wall, give ear!"

The ordinary houses of Babylonia were constructed of reeds, while the temples and palaces were built of hard-baked clay. "Reed-hut" and "clay structure," thus embracing the architecture of the country, are poetically used to designate the inhabitants of Shurippak. The address to the huts and structures has been appropriately compared by Professor Haupt to the opening words of Isaiah's prophecies.[942]

Hear, Heavens! and give ear, Earth!

Ea's words are intended as a warning to the people of Shurippak. The warning comes appropriately from Ea as the G.o.d of humanity, who according to some traditions is also the creator of mankind, and who is the teacher and protector of mankind. Opposed to Ea is Bel, the old Bel of Nippur, who is represented as favoring the destruction of humanity.

The story in this way reflects a rivalry between the Ea and Bel cults.

Of Shurippak, against which the anger of the G.o.ds is enkindled, we unfortunately know nothing,[943] but it is fair to a.s.sume that there was an ancient city of that name, and which was destroyed by an overflow of the Euphrates during the rainy season. The city need not necessarily have been one of much importance. Its sad fate would naturally have impressed itself upon the memory of the people, and given rise to legends precisely as the disappearance of Sodom[944] or of the destruction of the tribes of Ad and Thamud gave rise to fantastic stories among Hebrews and Arabs respectively.[945]

Ea, not content with the general warning, sends a special message to Parnapishtim, one of the inhabitants of Shurippak.

O man of Shurippak, son of Kidin-Marduk![946]

Erect a structure,[947] build a s.h.i.+p, Abandon your goods, look after the souls,[948]

Throw aside your possessions, and save your life, Load the s.h.i.+p with all kinds of living things.

The G.o.d then tells Parnapishtim in what manner to build the s.h.i.+p. Its dimensions should be carefully measured. Its breadth and depth should be equal, and when it is finished, Parnapishtim is to float it. The warning from Ea comes to him in a dream, as we learn from a subsequent part of the story. Parnapishtim does not deem it necessary to dwell upon this, for it is only through dreams that the G.o.ds communicate with kings and heroes.

Parnapishtim declares his readiness to obey the orders of Ea, but like Moses upon receiving the command of Yahwe, he asks what he should say when people question him.

What shall I answer the city, the people, and the elders?

Ea replies:

Thus answer and speak to them: Bel has cast me out in his hatred, So that I can no longer dwell in your city.

On Bel's territory I dare no longer show my face; Therefore, I go to the 'deep' to dwell with Ea my lord.

Bel's domain is the earth, while Ea controls the watery elements. Bel's hostility to mankind is limited to the inhabitants of the dry land. The moment that Parnapishtim enters Ea's domain he is safe. The answer thus not only furnishes the real motive for the building of the s.h.i.+p, but further ill.u.s.trates the purport of the narrative in its present form. It is a glorification of Ea at the expense of Bel, and it is not difficult to detect the thought underlying the story that the evils afflicting mankind on earth are due to the hostility of the 'chief demon,'[949] who becomes the controller of the earth and of the atmosphere immediately above the earth. Ea's answer is not intended to be equivocal, for he further orders Parnapishtim to announce to his fellow-citizens the coming destruction.

Over you a rainstorm will come, Men, birds, and beasts will perish.

The following line[950] is defective, but it appears to except from the general destruction the fish as the inhabitants of the domain controlled by Ea. The time when the catastrophe is to take place is vaguely indicated.

When Shamash will bring on the time, then the lord of the whirlstorm Will cause destruction to rain upon you in the evening.

The 'lord of the whirlstorm' is Ramman, and the reference to this deity specifies the manner in which the catastrophe will be brought about. As in the Biblical story, 'the windows of heaven are to be opened,' the rains will come down, driven by the winds that are to be let loose. It has been supposed that because the s.h.i.+p of Parnapishtim drifts to the north that the storm came from the south.[951] No stress, however, is laid upon the question of direction in the Babylonian narrative. The phenomenon of a whirlstorm with rain is of ordinary occurrence; its violence alone makes it an exceptional event, but--be it noted--not a miraculous one. Nor are we justified in attributing the deluge to the rush of waters from the Persian Gulf, for this sheet of water is particularly sacred to Ea as the beginning of the "great deep." It would be an insult to Ea's dignity to suppose that he is unable to govern his own territory. The catastrophe comes from above, from Ramman and his a.s.sociates who act at the instigation of the belligerent Bel.

Parnapishtim begins at once to build the s.h.i.+p. He gathers his material, and on the fifth day is ready to construct the hull. The s.h.i.+p resembles the ordinary craft still used on the Euphrates. It is a flat-bottomed skiff with upturned edges. On this sh.e.l.l the real 'house'[952] of Parnapishtim is placed. The structure is accurately described. Its height is one hundred and twenty cubits, and its breadth is the same, in accordance with the express orders given by Ea. No less than six floors are erected, one above the other.

Then I built six stories,[953]

So that the whole consisted of seven apartments.

The interior[954] I divided into nine parts.