Tulipomania_ The Story of the World's Most Coveted Flower and the Extraordinary Passions It Aroused Part 7

The early history of the tulip in Europe-insofar as it is known or can be guessed-was first thoroughly doc.u.mented by Hermann, Grafen zu Solms-Laubach, in Weizen und Tulpe und deren Geschichte Weizen und Tulpe und deren Geschichte (Leipzig: Arthur Felix, 1899), and summarized in English by Sir Daniel Hall, (Leipzig: Arthur Felix, 1899), and summarized in English by Sir Daniel Hall, The Book of the Tulip The Book of the Tulip (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1929). More recent research is very briefly summarized by Sam Segal, (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1929). More recent research is very briefly summarized by Sam Segal, Tulips Portrayed: The Tulip Trade in Holland in the Seventeenth Century Tulips Portrayed: The Tulip Trade in Holland in the Seventeenth Century (Lisse: Museum voor de Bloembollenstreek, 1992). (Lisse: Museum voor de Bloembollenstreek, 1992).

Lopo Vaz de Sampayo Vaz's connection with the tulip is also mentioned in Blunt, Vaz's connection with the tulip is also mentioned in Blunt, Tulipomania Tulipomania, p. 8n. Details of his career have been drawn from Whiteway, Rise of Portuguese Power in India Rise of Portuguese Power in India, pp. 20813, 22123. Nunho da Cunha, incidentally, was the son of Tristo da Cunha, who gave his name to a flyspeck island in the Atlantic that still forms one of the remoter outposts of the British Commonwealth.

Monstereul Charles de la Chesnee Monstereul's book was the earliest to be entirely devoted to the tulip and therefore carries some weight among historians of the flower. Charles de la Chesnee Monstereul's book was the earliest to be entirely devoted to the tulip and therefore carries some weight among historians of the flower.

Duration of voyages to Portugal Whiteway, Whiteway, Rise of Portuguese Power in India Rise of Portuguese Power in India, p. 46.

Tulip hailed as something new Hall, Hall, Book of the Tulip Book of the Tulip, p. 36.

Evidence for tulips in Europe before sixteenth century Ibid., pp. 17, 3637. Ibid., pp. 17, 3637.

Busbecq Baytop, "Tulip in Istanbul," p. 52; Martels, Baytop, "Tulip in Istanbul," p. 52; Martels, Augerius Gislenius Augerius Gislenius Busbequius, pp. 152, 44052. On the proper dating of Busbecq's first encounter with the tulip, see Martels, pp. 44950. George Sandys George Sandys Cited in Pavord, Cited in Pavord, Tulip Tulip, pp. 3536.

Busbecq's letters The book was The book was Legationis Turcicae Epistolae Quatuor Legationis Turcicae Epistolae Quatuor (Antwerp, 1581), and it was a best-seller in its time. (Antwerp, 1581), and it was a best-seller in its time.

Busbecq and the introduction of the tulip Another good reason for doubting that the amba.s.sador was personally responsible for bringing the tulip to Europe is that Busbecq frequently boasted that he had been the first to introduce the sweet fig to the West. Given the fame that the tulip had already attained by the time of his death in 1591, it seems inconceivable he would not also have claimed credit for that discovery, if he knew he had been the first to make it. See Martels, Another good reason for doubting that the amba.s.sador was personally responsible for bringing the tulip to Europe is that Busbecq frequently boasted that he had been the first to introduce the sweet fig to the West. Given the fame that the tulip had already attained by the time of his death in 1591, it seems inconceivable he would not also have claimed credit for that discovery, if he knew he had been the first to make it. See Martels, Augerius Gislenius Busbequius Augerius Gislenius Busbequius, pp. 45052.

The word tulip in English According to Hall, According to Hall, Book of the Tulip Book of the Tulip, p. 17, it first appeared in Lyte's translation of Florum et Coronarium Odoratumque Nonnularum Florum et Coronarium Odoratumque Nonnularum, by Clusius's friend Rembert Dodoens, originally published in Antwerp in 1568.

Conrad Gesner Hall, Hall, Book of the Tulip Book of the Tulip, p. 39; Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, p. 3; Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, pp. 1516; Fischer, Conrad Gesner Conrad Gesner. For the frog story, see Jan Bondeson, "Prodigious Vomiting," in A Cabinet of Medical Curiosities A Cabinet of Medical Curiosities (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997). (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997). Catalogus Plantarum Catalogus Plantarum, incidentally, was not published until two centuries after Gesner's death; his description of the tulip first appeared in an appendix he added to a book written by his friend Valerius Gordus, which was published in 1561.

"In the month of April ..." Quoted in Hall, Quoted in Hall, Book of the Tulip Book of the Tulip, p. 39.

Tulipa turcarum Although a species of tulip named in Gesner's honor was long thought to be that discovered at Augsberg, it would appear, according to Murray, "Introduction of the Tulip," p. 19, that the species in Herwart's garden was probably Although a species of tulip named in Gesner's honor was long thought to be that discovered at Augsberg, it would appear, according to Murray, "Introduction of the Tulip," p. 19, that the species in Herwart's garden was probably T. suavenolens T. suavenolens and not and not T. gesneriana T. gesneriana at all. at all.

Tulip seen in Italy by Johann Kentmann Segal, Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, pp. 3, 21 n6. Kentmann labeled this flower T. turcica T. turcica, but it appears to have been an example of the species T. sylvestris T. sylvestris.

The Fugger gardens Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg, Grosse Vermogen Grosse Vermogen, p. 38. See also Polnitz, Die Fugger Die Fugger. Anton Fugger, the son of the founder of the Fugger empire, offered employment to both Gesner and Clusius; neither, owing perhaps to religious scruples (since the Fuggers bankrolled much of the Counter-Reformation), accepted.

Early tulips in England and Europe Hall, Hall, Book of the Tulip Book of the Tulip, p. 40; Jacob, Tulips Tulips, p. 3; Blunt, Tulipomania Tulipomania, pp. 1011.

Garret and Gerrard Blunt, Blunt, Tulipomania Tulipomania, pp. 1011; Pavord, Tulip Tulip, pp. 10405.

Chapter 5. Clusius.

Easily the most comprehensive biography of Clusius is that published by F. W. T. Hunger in the two volumes of Charles d'Ecluse (Carolus Clusius), Nederlandsch Kruidkundige, 15261609 Charles d'Ecluse (Carolus Clusius), Nederlandsch Kruidkundige, 15261609 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1927, 1943), from which much of the material in this chapter is drawn. A popular biography by Johan Theunisz, (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1927, 1943), from which much of the material in this chapter is drawn. A popular biography by Johan Theunisz, Carolus Clusius: Het Merkwaardige Leven van een Pionier der Wetenschap Carolus Clusius: Het Merkwaardige Leven van een Pionier der Wetenschap (Amsterdam: P. N. Van Kampen & Zoon, 1939) adds a few details, mainly to elaborate on the botanist's early life. Clusius's scattered work on the tulip-which, it has to be stressed, was never remotely central to his botanical work as a whole-has fortunately been summarized, in English, by W. van Dijk, (Amsterdam: P. N. Van Kampen & Zoon, 1939) adds a few details, mainly to elaborate on the botanist's early life. Clusius's scattered work on the tulip-which, it has to be stressed, was never remotely central to his botanical work as a whole-has fortunately been summarized, in English, by W. van Dijk, A Treatise on Tulips by Carolus Clusius of Arras A Treatise on Tulips by Carolus Clusius of Arras (Haarlem: Enschede, 1951). (Haarlem: Enschede, 1951).

Anecdote of the Flemish merchant This story was originally recorded by Clusius himself and is mentioned in Dijk, This story was originally recorded by Clusius himself and is mentioned in Dijk, Treatise on Tulips Treatise on Tulips, p. 8.

Thus it was in the spring of 1563 This part of the account is speculation on my part, but it does strike me as unlikely, if the merchant thought the tulip bulbs were onions, that anyone would have realized what they really were until they had flowered. This part of the account is speculation on my part, but it does strike me as unlikely, if the merchant thought the tulip bulbs were onions, that anyone would have realized what they really were until they had flowered.

Execution of an uncle This was Mathieu d'Ecluse, who was actually burned in April 1567 during the duke of Alba's attempts to put down Protestantism in the Habsburg Netherlands. See Hunger, This was Mathieu d'Ecluse, who was actually burned in April 1567 during the duke of Alba's attempts to put down Protestantism in the Habsburg Netherlands. See Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, p. 97.

Extent of Clusius's correspondence The estimate of four thousand letters is based on a calculation by Hunger in ibid., vol. 1, p. 98. The estimate of four thousand letters is based on a calculation by Hunger in ibid., vol. 1, p. 98.

Clusius on the tulip Clusius first mentioned the flower in an appendix to his book on the flora of Spain, Clusius first mentioned the flower in an appendix to his book on the flora of Spain, Historia Stirpium per Hispanias Observatorum Historia Stirpium per Hispanias Observatorum, published in 1576 (pp. 51015), even though the flower was not native to that country. This does perhaps suggest that it was while he was traveling in Spain that he first heard about it from Rye. He elaborated considerably on its botany in a work on the flora of Austria, Historia Stirpium Pannoniae Historia Stirpium Pannoniae, published in 1583 (pp. 14569), and again in his masterpiece, Rariorum Plantarum Historia Rariorum Plantarum Historia, of 1601 (pp. 13752).

Experiments at Frankfurt This was in 1593. See Murray, "Introduction of the Tulip," p. 19. This was in 1593. See Murray, "Introduction of the Tulip," p. 19.

Clusius's character and disposition Hunger, Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, p. 323. Marie de Brimeu's compliment Marie de Brimeu's compliment Ibid., vol. 2, p. 217. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 217.

Clusius's poverty Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 111, 122. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 111, 122.

Plant trade between the Ottomans and Vienna Theunisz, Theunisz, Carolus Clusius Carolus Clusius, p. 68.

Clusius and Busbecq Clusius had already, in 1569, written to von Krafftheim asking him to obtain samples of plants from Busbecq. Hunger, Clusius had already, in 1569, written to von Krafftheim asking him to obtain samples of plants from Busbecq. Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, pp. 108, 139.

Busbecq's seed Dijk, Dijk, Treatise on Tulips Treatise on Tulips, p. 32.

Flower thieves Hunger, Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, p. 158; vol. 2, pp. 115, 135; Theunisz, Carolus Clusius Carolus Clusius, pp. 50, 78.

Lost all his teeth Hunger, Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, pp. 180, 240.

Chapter 6. Leiden.

The biographies by Hunger and Theunisz are again the princ.i.p.al sources for Clusius's career at Leiden. On the university at Leiden, the course of the Dutch Revolt, and the historical background to the mania period, see Jonathan Israel's magisterial The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 14771806 The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 14771806 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). The university, and particularly its famous anatomy school, was frequently mentioned by foreign visitors, and the accounts of Sir William Brereton, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). The university, and particularly its famous anatomy school, was frequently mentioned by foreign visitors, and the accounts of Sir William Brereton, Travels in Holland, the United Provinces etc ... 16341635 Travels in Holland, the United Provinces etc ... 16341635 (London: Chetham Society, 1844), and John Evelyn, (London: Chetham Society, 1844), and John Evelyn, The Diary of John Evelyn The Diary of John Evelyn, vol. 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955), make interesting reading. In discussing the tulip's botany, I have drawn on Daniel Hall, The Book of the Tulip The Book of the Tulip (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1929), and E. van Slogteren, "Broken Tulips," in (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1929), and E. van Slogteren, "Broken Tulips," in The Daffodil and Tulip Yearbook The Daffodil and Tulip Yearbook (London: Royal Horticultural Society, 1960). (London: Royal Horticultural Society, 1960).

Clusius in Frankfurt Hunger, Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 2, pp. 15354, 16465, 167, 17275.

Arrival in Leiden Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 21013. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 21013.

Leiden Israel, Israel, Dutch Republic Dutch Republic, pp. 308, 328; Zumthor, Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland, pp. 8, 12, 23, 239.

Dutch Revolt Israel, Israel, Dutch Republic Dutch Republic, pp. 16975, 18182.

University of Leiden Ibid., pp. 56972; Schama, Ibid., pp. 56972; Schama, Embarra.s.sment of Riches Embarra.s.sment of Riches, pp. 57, 175; Brereton, Travels in Holland Travels in Holland, pp. 4142; Evelyn, Diary Diary, pp. 5154; Zumthor, Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland, p. 154.

The Leiden hortus Hunger, Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, pp. 18994, 21418; vol. 2, p. 4; Israel, Dutch Republic Dutch Republic, pp. 57172, 1043; Brereton, Travels in Holland Travels in Holland, p. 42.

"True monarch of the flowers" From a letter dated February 28, 1602, quoted in Hunger, From a letter dated February 28, 1602, quoted in Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, p. 269.

Walich Ziwertsz. Wa.s.senaer, Historisch Verhael Historisch Verhael 9, section AprilOctober 1625, p. 10; Hensen, "De Vereering van St. Nicolaas," p. 187. 9, section AprilOctober 1625, p. 10; Hensen, "De Vereering van St. Nicolaas," p. 187.

Clusius on tulips Dijk, Dijk, Treatise on Tulips Treatise on Tulips, pp. 732.

Botany of the tulip Segal, Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, pp. 512; Hall, Book of the Tulip Book of the Tulip, pp. 99110; Murray, "Introduction of the Tulip," pp. 2123.

Offsets Mather, Mather, Economic Production Economic Production, p. 44.

Rosen, Violetten, and Bizarden tulips Krelage, Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, p. 33, makes the point that these category names were introduced only in the nineteenth century, but they are so convenient that we will use them here. The Violetten varieties, incidentally, are also sometimes known as bybloemen tulips.

"Superbly fine" and "rude" Ibid., p. 21. Ibid., p. 21.

Attempts to replicate breaking Pavord, Pavord, Tulip Tulip, p. 11.

Solution to the problem of breaking Hall, Hall, Book of the Tulip Book of the Tulip, pp. 10406.

Clusius and the demand for tulip bulbs Hunger, Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, pp. 214, 237.

Theft of bulbs Theunisz, Theunisz, Carolus Clusius Carolus Clusius, p. 120; Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, pp. 23738, 241; vol. 2, p. 197.

"The seventeen provinces were amply stocked" Cited in Blunt, Cited in Blunt, Tulipomania Tulipomania, p. 9.

Chapter 7. An Adornment to the Cleavage.

The early history of the tulip in the United Provinces and France is not especially well doc.u.mented. The basic details given here are summarized from Krelage's books and from the works of contemporary gardeners such as Abraham Munting, Waare Oeffening der Planten Waare Oeffening der Planten (Amsterdam: Hendrik Rintjes, 1671), from W. S. Murray, "The Introduction of the Tulip, and the Tulipomania," (Amsterdam: Hendrik Rintjes, 1671), from W. S. Murray, "The Introduction of the Tulip, and the Tulipomania," Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society (March 1909), and Sam Segal, (March 1909), and Sam Segal, Tulips Portrayed: The Tulip Trade in Holland in the Seventeenth Century Tulips Portrayed: The Tulip Trade in Holland in the Seventeenth Century (Lisse: Museum voor de Bloembollenstreek, 1992); the latter also includes a useful discussion of what is known about seventeenth-century tulip books. (Lisse: Museum voor de Bloembollenstreek, 1992); the latter also includes a useful discussion of what is known about seventeenth-century tulip books.

Monstereul's eulogy Cited by Segal, Cited by Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, p. 4.

Lobelius The Latinized name of Mathias de l'Obel, whose work on tulips was published in a French herbal of 1581. See Segal, The Latinized name of Mathias de l'Obel, whose work on tulips was published in a French herbal of 1581. See Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, p. 3.

Varieties of tulip Ibid., p. 4; Murray, "Introduction of the Tulip," p. 21. These totals exclude Turkish species, which by the eighteenth century numbered more than thirteen hundred by themselves. Ibid., p. 4; Murray, "Introduction of the Tulip," p. 21. These totals exclude Turkish species, which by the eighteenth century numbered more than thirteen hundred by themselves. Early tulip lovers Early tulip lovers Krelage, Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, pp. 2324; Krelage, Drie Eeuwen Bloembollenexport Drie Eeuwen Bloembollenexport, pp. 6, 17.

The tulip in France Krelage, Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, p. 29; Munting, Naauwkeurige Beschryving der Aardgewa.s.sen Naauwkeurige Beschryving der Aardgewa.s.sen, pp. 90711; Garber, "Tulip-mania," p. 543. Although dealt with by contemporary garden writers, the history of this early French tulip mania is still obscure and would probably repay some original research.

The rose as empress of the garden Zumthor, Zumthor, Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland, p. 49.

The tulip connoisseurs Stadsbibliotheek, Haarlem, Pa.s.se, Stadsbibliotheek, Haarlem, Pa.s.se, Een Cort Verhael van den Tulipanen Een Cort Verhael van den Tulipanen, p. 4; Krelage, Drie Eeuwen Bloembollenexport Drie Eeuwen Bloembollenexport, p. 6.

Paulus van Beresteyn Beresteyn and Hartman, Beresteyn and Hartman, Genealogie van het Geslacht Genealogie van het Geslacht, p. 134.

Jacques de Gheyn Regteren Altena, Regteren Altena, Jacques de Gheyn Jacques de Gheyn, vol. 1, pp. 23, 14, 38, 40, 59, 66, 6970, 13132, 153.

Guillelmo van de Heuvel Leonhardt, Leonhardt, Het Huis Bartolotti Het Huis Bartolotti, pp. 1415, 3940; Israel, Dutch Republic Dutch Republic, p. 348.

The Golden Age Price, Price, Culture and Society in the Dutch Republic; Culture and Society in the Dutch Republic; Israel, Israel, Dutch Republic Dutch Republic, pp. 54791.

Dutch country houses Schama, Schama, Embarra.s.sment of Riches Embarra.s.sment of Riches, pp. 29295; Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie Bloemenspeculatie, pp. 7, 2728. Jokes in church Jokes in church Cotterell, Cotterell, Amsterdam Amsterdam, p. 119. The usual fine was six stuivers per joke.

Jacob Cats Schama, Schama, Embarra.s.sment of Riches Embarra.s.sment of Riches, pp. 211, 293, 437.

Lord Offerbeake's garden Brereton, Brereton, Travels in Holland Travels in Holland, pp. 4445.

"All these fools want ..." English translation from Segal, English translation from Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, p. 16.

Of de Moufe-schans Hondius, Hondius, Dapes Inemptae Dapes Inemptae. On the true owners.h.i.+p of the Moufe-schans, which is sometimes incorrectly said to have been Hondius's own home, see Nieuw Nederlandsch Biographisch Woordenboek Nieuw Nederlandsch Biographisch Woordenboek, vol. 8, pp. 81213.

The prince of Orange's garden Brereton, Brereton, Travels in Holland Travels in Holland, pp. 3435.

Chapter 8. The Tulip in the Mirror.

My discussion of Semper Augustus is based, as all such discussions must be, on the chronicle of Nicolaes Jansz. van Wa.s.senaer. Van Wa.s.senaer, the son of an Amsterdam physician, taught at the Latin School in Haarlem and then in Amsterdam before becoming a professional writer (and part-time physician) after 1612. His chronicle, Historisch Verhael aller Gedencwaerdiger Gheschiedenissen Historisch Verhael aller Gedencwaerdiger Gheschiedenissen, 59 (Amsterdam: Iudocus Hondius and Jan Jansen, 162425), which is in general one of the most reliable available, is the princ.i.p.al source of information on the flower.

The pa.s.sages on the progress of the tulip craze are based as before on the works of Krelage, supplemented by those of Nicolaas Posthumus, "Die speculatie in Tulpen in de Jaren 1636 en 1637," parts 13, Economisch-Historisch Jaarboek Economisch-Historisch Jaarboek 12 (1926), pp. 39; 13 (1927), pp. 185; 18 (1934), pp. 22940; and "The Tulip Mania in Holland in the Years 1636 and 1637," in W. C. Scoville and J. C. LaForce, eds., 12 (1926), pp. 39; 13 (1927), pp. 185; 18 (1934), pp. 22940; and "The Tulip Mania in Holland in the Years 1636 and 1637," in W. C. Scoville and J. C. LaForce, eds., The Economic Development of Western Europe The Economic Development of Western Europe, vol. 2 (Lexington, Ma.s.s., 1969), and Peter Garber, "Tulipmania," Journal of Political Economy Journal of Political Economy 97 (June 1989), pp. 53560. Information on Dutch gardens of the period is drawn from Paul Zumthor, 97 (June 1989), pp. 53560. Information on Dutch gardens of the period is drawn from Paul Zumthor, Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1962), and Simon Schama's (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1962), and Simon Schama's The Embarra.s.sment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age The Embarra.s.sment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (London: Fontana, 1991). (London: Fontana, 1991).

Information on tulip books comes from Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, and Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland. The Hortus Floridus Hortus Floridus of Chrispijn van de Pa.s.se has been the subject of some research; see Spencer Savage, "The 'Hortus Floridus' of Crispijn vande Pas," of Chrispijn van de Pa.s.se has been the subject of some research; see Spencer Savage, "The 'Hortus Floridus' of Crispijn vande Pas," Transactions of the Bibliographic Society Transactions of the Bibliographic Society, ser. 2, vol. 4 (1923), pp. 181206, and Eleanour Rohde, Crispian Pa.s.seus's "Hortus Floridus" Crispian Pa.s.seus's "Hortus Floridus" (London, 192829). Savage's English translation appeared in the 1970s: (London, 192829). Savage's English translation appeared in the 1970s: Hortus Floridus: The Four Books of Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter Flowers, Engraved by Crispin van de Pas Hortus Floridus: The Four Books of Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter Flowers, Engraved by Crispin van de Pas (London: Minerva, c. 1974). (London: Minerva, c. 1974).

Adriaen Pauw Israel, Israel, Dutch Republic Dutch Republic, pp. 159, 319, 45859, 51819, 52233; and Boer et al., Adriaan Pauw Adriaan Pauw, pp. 2027. Today only a small portion of the Heemstede estate can still be seen; the rest has been swallowed up by Haarlem and now forms one of the southernmost suburbs of the city.

Pauw's mirrored garden Wa.s.senaer, Wa.s.senaer, Historisch Verhael Historisch Verhael, vol. 5, p. 40 and verso. It is possible that the Violetten variety Pauw, mentioned in Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, p. 138, was created by him or at least named for him.

Semper Augustus Wa.s.senaer, Wa.s.senaer, Historisch Verhael Historisch Verhael, vol. 5, p. 40 verso and 41; vol. 7, p. 111 and verso; vol. 9, p. 10. See also Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, pp. 3233, 68; Garber, "Tulipmania," p. 537; Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, pp. 89.

The owners.h.i.+p of Semper Augustus In recent years several authorities have confidently stated that the owner of Semper Augustus was none other than Adriaen Pauw, but they have not read van Wa.s.senaer's work carefully. In fact, although the chronicler did see specimens of the flower and did visit the garden at Heemstede, nowhere does he link the two, and the description he gives of Pauw's single tulip bed makes it unlikely that Semper Augustus-a flower that any connoisseur would have planted in solitary splendor-would have been grown there. In recent years several authorities have confidently stated that the owner of Semper Augustus was none other than Adriaen Pauw, but they have not read van Wa.s.senaer's work carefully. In fact, although the chronicler did see specimens of the flower and did visit the garden at Heemstede, nowhere does he link the two, and the description he gives of Pauw's single tulip bed makes it unlikely that Semper Augustus-a flower that any connoisseur would have planted in solitary splendor-would have been grown there.

Several unreferenced anecdotes suggest that other Semper Augustus bulbs were sold, but until they can be confirmed in contemporary records I would be reluctant to accept them at face value. Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, p. 65n, says that an Amsterdammer sold a Haarlemmer the flower on condition that neither would sell any further Semper Augustus bulbs without notifying the other first. The Amsterdam connoisseur later succ.u.mbed to the temptation of 3,000 guilders and a cabinet worth 10,000 guilders for a single bulb. When the Haarlemmer discovered this deception, he in turn sold three bulbs for 30,000 guilders. Similarly Munting, writing some thirty-five years after the mania, quoted an unreferenced bookkeeper's entry that reads: "Sold to N.N., a Semper Augustus weighing 123 azen, for the sum of 4,600 florins. Above this sum a new and well-made carriage and two dapple gray horses with all accessories to be delivered within two weeks, the money to be paid immediately." He also alleges a bulb was sold for 5,500 florins at public auction. See Munting, Naauwkeurige Beschryving Naauwkeurige Beschryving, pp. 90711.

Balthasar and Daniel de Neufville Gelder de Neufville, "De Oudste Generatics," pp. 68; Krelage, Gelder de Neufville, "De Oudste Generatics," pp. 68; Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, pp. 129, 140. These varieties bore the corrupted name "de Novil."

Tulip growers Hunger, Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, p. 241; vol. 2, p. 251.

Henrik Pottebacker Segal, Segal, Tulips Portrayed Tulips Portrayed, p. 8; Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, pp. 127, 138.

Rhizotomi and apothecaries Hunger, Hunger, Charles d'Ecluse Charles d'Ecluse, vol. 1, pp. 30306; Krelage, Drie Eeuwen Bloembollenexport Drie Eeuwen Bloembollenexport, p. 17. On the unreliability of apothecaries, see Zumthor, Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland Daily Life in Rembrandt's Holland, pp. 73, 157.

The tulip as aphrodisiac Segal and Roding, Segal and Roding, De Tulp en de Kunst De Tulp en de Kunst, p. 22. The contemporary English garden writer John Parkinson mentions the supposed aphrodisiac qualities of the flower in Paradisus Terrestris Paradisus Terrestris (1629), confessing however: "For force of Venereous quality, I cannot say ... not having eaten many." Quoted in Blunt, (1629), confessing however: "For force of Venereous quality, I cannot say ... not having eaten many." Quoted in Blunt, Tulipomania Tulipomania, pp. 1011.

Actors in the early tulip trade: Posthumus, "Die Speculatie in Tulpen" (1927), pp. 1115. Posthumus, "Die Speculatie in Tulpen" (1927), pp. 1115.

Gardens outside Haarlem Temmininck et al., Temmininck et al., Haarlemmerhout 400 Jaar Haarlemmerhout 400 Jaar, pp. 9899.

Pieter Bol and Barent Cardoes Krelage, Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, p. 42; Schama, Embarra.s.sment of Riches Embarra.s.sment of Riches, p. 356. Cardoes died late in 1657 (Haarlem Burial Registers 72, fol. 100), but the business he established was still in existence in the eighteenth century.

Francisco da Costa Unsurprisingly, da Costa's business was a very sound one, and it survived the mania and continued until at least 1645. Krelage, Unsurprisingly, da Costa's business was a very sound one, and it survived the mania and continued until at least 1645. Krelage, Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland, pp. 4243, 55; Krelage, "Het Ma.n.u.script over den Tulpenwindhandel," p. 30.