The Religions of India Part 5

O Bhaga, leader Bhaga, true bestower, O Bhaga, help this prayer, to us give (riches), O Bhaga, make us grow in kine and horses, O Bhaga, eke in men, men-wealthy be we!

And now may we be rich, be _bhaga_-holders,[45]

Both at the (day's) approach, and eke at midday, And at the sun's departure, generous giver.

The favor of the G.o.ds may we abide in.

O G.o.ds, (to us) be Bhaga really _bhaga_,[46]

By means of him may we be _bhaga_-holders.

As such an one do all, O Bhaga, call thee, As such, O Bhaga, be to-day our leader.

May dawns approach the sacrifice, the holy Place, like to Dadhikr[=a],[47] like horses active, Which bring a chariot near; so, leading Bhaga, Who finds good things, may they approach, and bring him.

As this is the only hymn addressed to Bhaga, and as it proves itself to have been made for altar service (in style as well as in special mention of the ceremony), it is evident that Bhaga, although called Aditi's son, is but a G.o.d of wealth and (like Anca, the Apportioner) very remotely connected with physical functions. But the hymn appears to be so late that it cannot throw much light on the original conception of the deity. We rather incline to doubt whether Bhaga was ever, strictly speaking, a sun-G.o.d, and think that he was made so merely because the sun (Savitar) was called _bhaga_. A (Greek: Zehys) Bagaios was wors.h.i.+pped by the Phrygians, while in the Avesta and as a Slavic G.o.d Bhaga has no especial connection with the sun. It must be acknowledged, however, that every form of the sun-G.o.d is especially lauded for generosity.

VISHNU.

In the person of Vishnu the sun is extolled under another name, which in the period of the Rig Veda was still in the dawn of its glory. The hymns to Vishnu are few; his fame rests chiefly on the three strides with which he crosses heaven, on his making fast the earth, and on his munificence.[48] He, too, leads in battle and is revered under the t.i.tle cipivishta,[49] of unknown significance, but meaning literally 'bald.' Like Savitar he has three s.p.a.ces, two called earthly, and one, the highest, known only to himself. His greatness is inconceivable, and he is especially praised with Indra, the two being looked upon as masters of the world.[50] His highest place is the realm of the departed spirits.[51] The hymns to him appear to be late (thus I. 155.

6, where, as the year, he has four seasons of ninety days each). Like P[=u]shan (his neighbor in many lauds) he is a.s.sociated in a late hymn with the Maruts (V. 87). His later popularity lies in the importance of his 'highest place' (or step) being the home of the departed spirits, where he himself dwells, inscrutable. This led to the spirit's union with the sun, which, as we have said, is one of the first phases of the pantheistic doctrine. In the family-books Vishnu gets but two hymns, both in the same collection, and shares one more with Indra (VII. 99-100; VI. 69). In some of the family-collections, notably in that of the Visvamitras, he is, if not unknown, almost ignored. As Indra's friend he is most popular with the Kanva family, but even here he has no special hymn.

None born, G.o.d Vishnu, and none born hereafter E'er reaches to the limit of thy greatness; Twas thou establish'st yon high vault of heaven, Thou madest fast the earth's extremest mountain. (VII. 99. 2.)

Three steps he made, the herdsman sure, Vishnu, and stepped across (the world). (I. 22. i8.)

The mighty deeds will I proclaim of Vishnu, Who measured out the earth's extremest s.p.a.ces, And fastened firm the highest habitation, Thrice stepping out with step all-powerful.

O would that I might reach his path beloved, Where joy the men who hold the G.o.ds in honor. (I. 154. 1, 5.)

Under all these names and images the sun is wors.h.i.+pped. And it is necessary to review them all to see how deeply the wors.h.i.+p is ingrained. The sun is one of the most venerable as he is the most enduring of India's nature-G.o.ds.[52] In no early pa.s.sage is the sun a malignant G.o.d. He comes "as kine to the village, as a hero to his steed, as a calf to the cow, as a husband to his wife."[53] He is the 'giver,' the 'generous one,' and as such he is Mitra, 'the friend,'

who with Varuna, the encompa.s.sing heaven, is, indeed, in the Rig Veda, a personality subordinated to his greater comrade; yet is this, perhaps, the sun's oldest name of those that are not descriptive of purely physical characteristics. For Mithra in Persian keeps the proof that this t.i.tle was given to the Indo-Iranic G.o.d before the separation of the two peoples. It is therefore (perhaps with Bhaga?) one of the most ancient personal designations of the sun,--one, perhaps, developed from a mere name into a separate deity.

HEAVEN AND EARTH.

Not only as identical with the chief G.o.d of the Greeks, but also from a native Indic point of view, it might have been expected that Dyaus (Zeus), the 's.h.i.+ning sky,' would play an important role in the Hindu pantheon. But such is not the case. There is not a single hymn addressed independently to Dyaus, nor is there any hint of especial preeminence of Dyaus in the half-dozen hymns that are sung to Heaven and Earth together. The word _dyaus_ is used hundreds of times, but generally in the meaning sky (without personification). There is, to be sure, a formal acknowledgment of the fatherhood of Dyaus (among G.o.ds he is father particularly of Dawn, the Acvins, and Indra), as there is of the motherhood of Earth, but there is no further exaltation. No exaggeration--the sign of Hindu enthusiasm--is displayed in the laudation, and the epithet 'father' is given to half a dozen Vedic G.o.ds, as in Rome Ma(r)spiter stands beside Jup(p)iter.

Certain functions are ascribed to Heaven and Earth, but they are of secondary origin. Thus they bring to the G.o.d he sacrifice,[54] as does Agni, and one whole hymn may thus be epitomized: 'By the ordinance of Varuna made firm, O Heaven and Earth, give us blessings. Blest with children and wealth is he that adores you twain. Give us sweet food, glory and strength of heroes, ye who are our father and mother.'[55]

The praise is vague and the benevolence is the usual 'bestowal of blessings' expected of all the G.o.ds in return for praise. Other hymns add to this something, from which one sees that these deities are not regarded as self-created; for the seers of old, or, according to one poet some wonderful divine artisan, "most wondrous worker of the wonder-working G.o.ds," created them. Their chief office is to exercise benign protection and bestow wealth. Once they are invited to come to the sacrifice "with the G.o.ds," but this, of course, is not meant to exclude them from the list of G.o.ds[56].

The ant.i.thesis of male and female, to Bergaigne's insistence on which reference was made above (p. 43), even here in this most obvious of forms, common to so many religions, shows itself so faintly that it fails utterly to support that basis of s.e.xual dualism on which the French scholar lays so much stress. Dyaus does, indeed, occasionally take the place of Indra, and as a bellowing bull impregnate earth, but this is wholly incidental and not found at all in the hymns directly lauding Heaven and Earth. Moreover, instead of "father and mother"

Heaven and Earth often are spoken of as "the two mothers," the significance of which cannot be nullified by the explanation that to the Hindu 'two mothers' meant two parents, and of two parents one must be male,--Bergaigne's explanation. For not only is Dyaus one of the 'two mothers,' but when independently used the word Dyaus is male or female indifferently. Thus in X. 93. I: "O Heaven and Earth be wide outstretched for us, (be) like two young women." The position of Heaven and Earth in relation to other divinities varies with the fancy of the poet that extols them. They are either created, or they create G.o.ds, as well as create men. In accordance with the physical reach of these deities they are exhorted to give strength whereby the wors.h.i.+pper shall "over-reach all peoples"; and, as parents, to be the "nearest of the G.o.ds," to be "like father and mother in kindness." (I.

159; 160. 2, 5.)

One more attribute remains to be noticed, which connects Dyaus morally as well as physically with Savitar and Varuna. The verse in which this attribute is spoken of is also not without interest from a sociological point of view: "Whatsoever sin we have committed against the G.o.ds, or against a friend, or against the chief of the clan (family)[57] may this hymn to Heaven and Earth avert it." It was shown above that Savitar removes sin. Here, as in later times, it is the hymn that does this. The mystery of these G.o.ds' origin puzzles the seer: "Which was first and which came later, how were they begotten, who knows, O ye wise seers? Whatever exists, that they carry."[58] But all that they do they do under the command of Mitra.[59]

The most significant fact in connection with the hymns to Heaven and Earth is that most of them are expressly for sacrificial intent. "With sacrifices I praise Heaven and Earth" (I. 159. 1); "For the sake of the sacrifice are ye come down (to us)" (IV. 56. 7). In VI. 70 they are addressed in sacrificial metaphors; in VII. 53. 1 the poet says: "I invoke Heaven and Earth with sacrifices," etc. The pa.s.sivity of the two G.o.ds makes them yield in importance to their son, the active Savitar, who goes between the two parents. None of these hymns bears the impress of active religious feeling or has poetic value. They all seem to be reflective, studied, more or less mechanical, and to belong to a period of theological philosophy. To Earth alone without Heaven are addressed one uninspired hymn and a fragment of the same character: "O Earth be kindly to us, full of dwellings and painless, and give us protection."[60] In the burial service the dead are exhorted to "go into kindly mother earth" who will be "wool-soft, like a maiden."[61] The one hymn to Earth should perhaps be placed parallel with similar meditative and perfunctory laudations in the Homeric hymns:

To EARTH (V. 84).

In truth, O broad extended earth, Thou bear'st the render of the hills,[62]

Thou who, O mighty mountainous one, Quickenest created things with might.

Thee praise, O thou that wander'st far, The hymns which light accompany, Thee who, O s.h.i.+ning one, dost send Like eager steeds the gus.h.i.+ng rain.

Thou mighty art, who holdest up With strength on earth the forest trees, When rain the rains that from thy clouds And Dyaus' far-gleaming lightning come.[62]

On the bearing of these facts, especially in regard to the secondary greatness of Dyaus, we shall touch below. He is a G.o.d exalted more by modern writers than by the Hindus!

VARUNA.

Varuna has been referred already in connection with the sun-G.o.d and with Heaven and Earth. It is by Varuna's power that they stand firm.

He has established the sun 'like a tree,' i.e., like a support, and 'made a path for it.'[63] He has a thousand remedies for ills; to his realm not even the birds can ascend, nor wind or swift waters attain.

It is in accordance with the changeless order[64] of Varuna that the stars and the moon go their regular course; he gives long life and releases from harm, from wrong, and from sin.[65]

Varuna is the most exalted of those G.o.ds whose origin is physical. His realm is all above us; the sun and stars are his eyes; he sits above upon his golden throne and sees all that pa.s.ses below, even the thoughts of men. He is, above all, the moral controller of the universe.

To VARUNA (i. 25).

Howe'er we, who thy people are, O Varuna, thou s.h.i.+ning G.o.d, Thy order injure, day by day, Yet give us over nor to death, Nor to the blow of angry (foe), Nor to the wrath of (foe) incensed.[66]

Thy mind for mercy we release-- As charioteer, a fast-bound steed-- By means of song, O Varuna.

('Tis Varuna) who knows the track Of birds that fly within the air, And knows the s.h.i.+ps upon the flood;[67]

Knows, too, the (G.o.d) of order firm, The twelve months with their progeny, And e'en which month is later born;[68]

Knows, too, the pathway of the wind, The wide, the high, the mighty (wind), And knows who sit above (the wind).

(G.o.d) of firm order, Varuna His place hath ta'en within (his) home For lords.h.i.+p, he, the very strong.[69]

Thence all the things that are concealed He looks upon, considering Whate'er is done and to be done.

May he, the Son of Boundlessness, The very strong, through every day Make good our paths, prolong our life.

Bearing a garment all of gold, In jewels clothed, is Varuna, And round about him sit his spies; A G.o.d whom injurers injure not, Nor cheaters cheat among the folk, Nor any plotters plot against; Who for himself 'mid (other) men Glory unequalled gained, and gains (Such glory) also 'mid ourselves.

Far go my thoughts (to him), as go The eager cows that meadows seek, Desiring (him), the wide-eyed (G.o.d).

Together let us talk again, Since now the offering sweet I bring, By thee beloved, and like a priest Thou eat'st.

I see the wide-eyed (G.o.d): I see his chariot on the earth, My song with joy hath he received.

Hear this my call, O Varuna, Be merciful to me today, For thee, desiring help, I yearn.

Thou, wise one, art of everything, The sky and earth alike, the king; As such upon thy way give ear, And loose from us the (threefold) bond; The upper bond, the middle, break, The lower, too, that we may live.

In the portrait of such a G.o.d as this one comes very near to monotheism. The conception of an almost solitary deity, recognized as watcher of wrong, guardian of right, and primitive creator, approaches more closely to unitarianism than does the idea of any physical power in the Rig Veda.

To the poet of the Rig Veda Varuna is the enveloping heaven;[70] that is, in distinction from Dyaus, from whom he differs _toto caelo_, so to speak, the invisible world, which embraces the visible sky. His home is there where lives the Unborn, whose place is unique, above the highest heaven.[71]

But it is exactly this loftiness of character that should make one shy of interpreting Varuna as being originally the G.o.d that is presented here. Can this G.o.d, 'most august of Vedic deities,' as Bergaigne and others have called him, have belonged as such to the earliest stratum of Aryan belief?

There are some twelve hymns in the Rig Veda in Varuna's honor. Of these, one in the tenth book celebrates Indra as opposed to Varuna, and generally it is considered late, in virtue of its content. Of the hymns in the eighth book the second appears to be a later imitation of the first, and the first appears, from several indications, to be of comparatively recent origin.[72] In the seventh book (vii. 86-89) the short final hymn contains a distinctly late trait in invoking Varuna to cure dropsy; the one preceding this is _in majorem gloriam_ of the poet Vasistha, fitly following the one that appears to be as new, where not only the mysticism but the juggling with "thrice-seven,"

shows the character of the hymn to be recent.[73] In the first hymn of this book the late doctrine of inherited sin stands prominently forth (vii. 86. 5) as an indication of the time in which it was composed.