NurtureShock_ New Thinking About Children Part 12

Developmental s.h.i.+fts of brain's processing: Some of reports on this developmental s.h.i.+ft include: Casey et al. (2005); Colom et al. (2006a); Colom et al. (2006b); Haier (1990); Johnson et al. (2008); Paus et al. (2005); Paus et al. (1999); Rubia et al. (2006); Scherf et al. (2006); Schlaggar et al. (2002); and Thomas et al. (2008). Some of reports on this developmental s.h.i.+ft include: Casey et al. (2005); Colom et al. (2006a); Colom et al. (2006b); Haier (1990); Johnson et al. (2008); Paus et al. (2005); Paus et al. (1999); Rubia et al. (2006); Scherf et al. (2006); Schlaggar et al. (2002); and Thomas et al. (2008).

Chapter 6, The Sibling Effect.

Increase in one-child families: Interestingly, despite the increase in only-child families, only 3% of Americans believe that a single-child family is ideal. Mancillas (2006). Interestingly, despite the increase in only-child families, only 3% of Americans believe that a single-child family is ideal. Mancillas (2006).

Frequency of sibling arguments: Kramer et al. (1999). Kramer et al. (1999).

Kramer's findings on parents' acceptance of sibling conflict: Kramer and a number of scholars complain that parental acceptance of sibling conflict actually contributes to its prevalence: seeing it as inevitable, parents do less to prevent it from occurring. The scholars also reject the idea that sibling conflict is a certainty, pointing to more congenial sibling relations.h.i.+ps in other cultures, where elder siblings are expected to be caregivers to younger children. Kramer and a number of scholars complain that parental acceptance of sibling conflict actually contributes to its prevalence: seeing it as inevitable, parents do less to prevent it from occurring. The scholars also reject the idea that sibling conflict is a certainty, pointing to more congenial sibling relations.h.i.+ps in other cultures, where elder siblings are expected to be caregivers to younger children.

Parents' role in conflict prevention and conflict resolution: Another reason why Kramer's approach is so innovative is that the research on parents' attempts at conflict resolution are decidedly mixed. Smith and Ross (2007) had some success in training parents how to mediate sibling disputes. (The program was Smith's doctoral dissertation-and Kramer was on the review panel.) But without that training, Ross and other scholars have found that parents' intervention in an argument can actually make things worse. Often, their focus is on forcing children to share a fought-over toy, or to divert one child from the conflict-but then they deprive the kids of an opportunity to learn negotiation or respect for others' needs. Even worse is when a parent just ends the argument with something like, "That's enough-I've had it with you two." Because there, the parent is exhibiting the same sort of self-centered, unilateral power play that the children are attempting. See, e.g., Kramer et al. (1999); Perlman et al. (2007); Ross et al. (2006); and Ross (1996). Another reason why Kramer's approach is so innovative is that the research on parents' attempts at conflict resolution are decidedly mixed. Smith and Ross (2007) had some success in training parents how to mediate sibling disputes. (The program was Smith's doctoral dissertation-and Kramer was on the review panel.) But without that training, Ross and other scholars have found that parents' intervention in an argument can actually make things worse. Often, their focus is on forcing children to share a fought-over toy, or to divert one child from the conflict-but then they deprive the kids of an opportunity to learn negotiation or respect for others' needs. Even worse is when a parent just ends the argument with something like, "That's enough-I've had it with you two." Because there, the parent is exhibiting the same sort of self-centered, unilateral power play that the children are attempting. See, e.g., Kramer et al. (1999); Perlman et al. (2007); Ross et al. (2006); and Ross (1996).

Causes of sibling disputes: McGuire et al. (2000). McGuire et al. (2000).

Chapter 7, The Science of Teen Rebellion.

Certainties of life statistics: For marriage disruption probabilities, see Bramlett and Mosher (2002). For life expectancy in the United States, see the National Center for Health Statistics' Fastats. The 2008 New York State bar pa.s.s rate for first-time takers was 83%, up from 79.1% the previous year, while Harvard's record number of applicants in 2008 (27,462), made its 7% acceptance rate the lowest in the school's history. McAlary (2008) and "A Record Pool" (2008). For marriage disruption probabilities, see Bramlett and Mosher (2002). For life expectancy in the United States, see the National Center for Health Statistics' Fastats. The 2008 New York State bar pa.s.s rate for first-time takers was 83%, up from 79.1% the previous year, while Harvard's record number of applicants in 2008 (27,462), made its 7% acceptance rate the lowest in the school's history. McAlary (2008) and "A Record Pool" (2008).

Boredom and alcohol / drug use: The National Center for Addiction and Substance Abuse found that adolescents who were bored were 50% more likely to smoke, get drunk, or use illegal drugs. Caldwell and Smith (2006). The National Center for Addiction and Substance Abuse found that adolescents who were bored were 50% more likely to smoke, get drunk, or use illegal drugs. Caldwell and Smith (2006).

Harris poll of the parents of teens: "Wake Up Moms and Dads!" (2008). "Wake Up Moms and Dads!" (2008).

A teen saying "none of your business" / the drive for autonomy: An adolescent's drive for autonomy isn't universal-kids don't usually demand across-the-board control of their lives. Instead, scholar Judith Smetana has determined that adolescents divide the world into certain spheres of control: they believe there are things that parents have the right to have control over, but there are also things that are rightly under a kid's own control. The tension comes in that parents and adolescents don't always agree what goes in which category. An adolescent's drive for autonomy isn't universal-kids don't usually demand across-the-board control of their lives. Instead, scholar Judith Smetana has determined that adolescents divide the world into certain spheres of control: they believe there are things that parents have the right to have control over, but there are also things that are rightly under a kid's own control. The tension comes in that parents and adolescents don't always agree what goes in which category.

For example, both father and daughter might agree that he can set rules about driving, because those are safety-related. But the father might also believe that he should have a right of approval over his daughter's friends, and his daughter adamantly disagrees, believing that who her friends are should be up to her alone. Another example: parents might be furious about a child's refusal to clean his room or take care of his things, but he sees his sloppiness as something that affects only him, so he doesn't understand what they are so upset about. For example, both father and daughter might agree that he can set rules about driving, because those are safety-related. But the father might also believe that he should have a right of approval over his daughter's friends, and his daughter adamantly disagrees, believing that who her friends are should be up to her alone. Another example: parents might be furious about a child's refusal to clean his room or take care of his things, but he sees his sloppiness as something that affects only him, so he doesn't understand what they are so upset about. One might a.s.sume that early adolescents accept more parental governance, but Darling has actually found it's the other way around: early adolescents want more control over their lives than late adolescents. One might a.s.sume that early adolescents accept more parental governance, but Darling has actually found it's the other way around: early adolescents want more control over their lives than late adolescents.

Brain's reward center: Galvan's experiment was specifically designed to a.s.sess how rewards are processed within the nucleus acc.u.mbens and the orbital frontal cortex, because those areas of the brain are particularly sensitive to the amount of rewards. The brain's ventral striatum and thalamus are also involved in the brain's perception and response to rewards. See Izuma et al. (2008) in Chapter 1 sources and Galvan et al. (2005). Galvan's experiment was specifically designed to a.s.sess how rewards are processed within the nucleus acc.u.mbens and the orbital frontal cortex, because those areas of the brain are particularly sensitive to the amount of rewards. The brain's ventral striatum and thalamus are also involved in the brain's perception and response to rewards. See Izuma et al. (2008) in Chapter 1 sources and Galvan et al. (2005).

Arguing with parents: Arguing with parents peaks when kids are in early adolescence-from 11 to 14 years old. However, that's true for older siblings; for a younger sibling, that peak period of conflict occurs between a second child and his mother at ages 9 to 11, and with a dad, earlier still-at just 7 to 9 years. Shananan et al. (2007). Arguing with parents peaks when kids are in early adolescence-from 11 to 14 years old. However, that's true for older siblings; for a younger sibling, that peak period of conflict occurs between a second child and his mother at ages 9 to 11, and with a dad, earlier still-at just 7 to 9 years. Shananan et al. (2007).

The myth of the rebellious teen years: Our review of the flawed early research into teen rebellion is based on Steinberg (2001). Current estimates are that real rebellion against parents occurs only about 515% of the time. Smetana, Campione-Barr, and Metzger (2006). The myth of teen rebellion isn't the only lore around teens: there's no support that teens are driven by "raging hormones," either. Spear (2000). Our review of the flawed early research into teen rebellion is based on Steinberg (2001). Current estimates are that real rebellion against parents occurs only about 515% of the time. Smetana, Campione-Barr, and Metzger (2006). The myth of teen rebellion isn't the only lore around teens: there's no support that teens are driven by "raging hormones," either. Spear (2000).

College students in remedial programs: California isn't the only state with college students in remedial programs. Pennsylvania estimates that one-third of its state college students were also in remedial cla.s.ses. "a.n.a.lysis of the 200304 Budget" (2003), "Early a.s.sessment Program" (2008), and Barnes (2007). California isn't the only state with college students in remedial programs. Pennsylvania estimates that one-third of its state college students were also in remedial cla.s.ses. "a.n.a.lysis of the 200304 Budget" (2003), "Early a.s.sessment Program" (2008), and Barnes (2007).

But there's a hidden story in those remediation numbers: nationally, fewer students are in remedial programs now than since the 1980s. 42% of the Cla.s.s of 1982 needed remedial courses in college-including 29% of the students in the nation's top quintile. By 1992, the remediation rate was down to 26% overall, and just 9% of the nation's best needed remediation. The rate's been hovering around 28% ever since. There are actually fewer colleges and universities offering remedial courses now than there were in the 1980s. Adelman (2004) and Pasard and Lewis (2003). But there's a hidden story in those remediation numbers: nationally, fewer students are in remedial programs now than since the 1980s. 42% of the Cla.s.s of 1982 needed remedial courses in college-including 29% of the students in the nation's top quintile. By 1992, the remediation rate was down to 26% overall, and just 9% of the nation's best needed remediation. The rate's been hovering around 28% ever since. There are actually fewer colleges and universities offering remedial courses now than there were in the 1980s. Adelman (2004) and Pasard and Lewis (2003).

Increase in students taking advanced math and science / increase in college applications: The 20% increase in students' partic.i.p.ation in math and science occurred from 1990 to 2004. That isn't the only indicator that students are taking more advanced courses: from 1996 to 2007, the number of students taking Advanced Placement exams (trying to obtain college credit while still in high school) tripled-to 1.5 million. More students are also meeting or exceeding the recommended years of high school study in key subjects. Morisi (2008) and "The American Freshman: Forty-Year Trends" (2007). The 20% increase in students' partic.i.p.ation in math and science occurred from 1990 to 2004. That isn't the only indicator that students are taking more advanced courses: from 1996 to 2007, the number of students taking Advanced Placement exams (trying to obtain college credit while still in high school) tripled-to 1.5 million. More students are also meeting or exceeding the recommended years of high school study in key subjects. Morisi (2008) and "The American Freshman: Forty-Year Trends" (2007).

Of course, there is room for improvement-the nation's failure and dropout rates are unacceptable. But, on average, millions more kids are better academically prepared than ever before. Of course, there is room for improvement-the nation's failure and dropout rates are unacceptable. But, on average, millions more kids are better academically prepared than ever before.

Enrollment data for colleges: "Percentage of High School Completers" (2008). "Percentage of High School Completers" (2008).

Surveys of college freshmen: We drew our data from the Higher Education Research Inst.i.tute's annual survey, "The American Freshman," for the years 2007 and 2009. We drew our data from the Higher Education Research Inst.i.tute's annual survey, "The American Freshman," for the years 2007 and 2009.

Chapter 8, Can Self-Control Be Taught?.

Inefficacy of Driver's Ed: Mayhew et al. (1998); Vernick et al. (1999); and Williams (2006). Mayhew et al. (1998); Vernick et al. (1999); and Williams (2006).

Failure of drug-prevention and dropout programs: The General Accounting Office reported on the ineffectiveness of D.A.R.E. and a review of other drug-prevention programs in a report presented to Senator Richard J. Durbin (D-Illinois). Kanof (2003). Similar a.s.sessments were included in a Report to Congress from National Inst.i.tute of Justice. Sherman et al. (1998). Scholarly a.n.a.lyses include Lynam et al. (1999) and Shepard (2001). The General Accounting Office reported on the ineffectiveness of D.A.R.E. and a review of other drug-prevention programs in a report presented to Senator Richard J. Durbin (D-Illinois). Kanof (2003). Similar a.s.sessments were included in a Report to Congress from National Inst.i.tute of Justice. Sherman et al. (1998). Scholarly a.n.a.lyses include Lynam et al. (1999) and Shepard (2001).

Interventions and effect sizes: For a perspective on how effect sizes play out in specific interventions, see Ammerman et al. (2002); Snyder et al. (2004); Welsh and Farrington (2003); Stice et al. (2006); and Wilfley et al. (2007). For a perspective on how effect sizes play out in specific interventions, see Ammerman et al. (2002); Snyder et al. (2004); Welsh and Farrington (2003); Stice et al. (2006); and Wilfley et al. (2007).

Learning through use of private speech: A study at Vanderbilt University recently demonstrated the power of teaching private speech. Four- and five-year-olds had to pick up a color and shape pattern, then predict what the next object in the pattern would be. The control group was taught how to see a pattern, but the experimental groups were taught to talk themselves out loud through the pattern. The kids taught the private speech were 300% better at the task than the control kids. Rittle-Johnson et al. (2008). A study at Vanderbilt University recently demonstrated the power of teaching private speech. Four- and five-year-olds had to pick up a color and shape pattern, then predict what the next object in the pattern would be. The control group was taught how to see a pattern, but the experimental groups were taught to talk themselves out loud through the pattern. The kids taught the private speech were 300% better at the task than the control kids. Rittle-Johnson et al. (2008).

The malleability of self-control: Masicampo and Baumeister (2008) and Baumeister et al. (2007). Masicampo and Baumeister (2008) and Baumeister et al. (2007).

Study finding a correction between high IQ and glucose-related fatigue: Shamosh and Gray (2007). Shamosh and Gray (2007).

Chapter 9, Plays Well With Others.

Scholars' responses to Dodge's findings: Based on author notes of remarks by Dodge, Lansford, and members of the audience during Dodge et al.'s presentation at the Society for Research in Child Development Biennial meeting in Boston, 2007. Based on author notes of remarks by Dodge, Lansford, and members of the audience during Dodge et al.'s presentation at the Society for Research in Child Development Biennial meeting in Boston, 2007.

Ethnic/cross-cultural differences in use of corporal punishment: It's important to note that, even for most families who use corporal punishment, it's usually a rare occurrence, and that we are talking about spanking only as a reprimand. We aren't talking about abuse. And, to restate one more time what's in the text, Dodge and his colleagues do It's important to note that, even for most families who use corporal punishment, it's usually a rare occurrence, and that we are talking about spanking only as a reprimand. We aren't talking about abuse. And, to restate one more time what's in the text, Dodge and his colleagues do not not believe that their work should encourage anyone to use corporal punishment. Instead, they believe that the parents' and cultural meanings attached to punishment (whatever form it takes) must be considered when understanding its effects on a child. believe that their work should encourage anyone to use corporal punishment. Instead, they believe that the parents' and cultural meanings attached to punishment (whatever form it takes) must be considered when understanding its effects on a child.

Conservative Protestants' and other religious denominations' use of corporal punishment: Gershoff et al. (1999); Gershoff (2002); and Regnerus et al. (2003). Gershoff et al. (1999); Gershoff (2002); and Regnerus et al. (2003).

British inquiry on bullying: House of Commons (2007). House of Commons (2007).

Rise of zero tolerance: Skiba et al. (2006) and author interviews with the chairman of the APA's zero tolerance task force, Cecil Reynolds. Skiba et al. (2006) and author interviews with the chairman of the APA's zero tolerance task force, Cecil Reynolds.

popie-jopie: Author interviews with Cillessen; and deBruyn and Cillessen (2006). Author interviews with Cillessen; and deBruyn and Cillessen (2006).

Studies connecting popularity and alcohol use: See, for example, Allen et al. (2006) and Allen and McFarland (2008). See, for example, Allen et al. (2006) and Allen and McFarland (2008).

Kids who are "socially busy": Author interview with Claire Hughes. Author interview with Claire Hughes.

Estimate that bistrategic controllers could be as many as one out of six children: Jacobs et al. (2007). Jacobs et al. (2007).

Adolescents' time spent in interactions with adults and peers: Spear (2000) in Chapter 7 sources; authors' interviews and correspondence with Baird and Allen. Spear (2000) in Chapter 7 sources; authors' interviews and correspondence with Baird and Allen.

Chapter 10, Why Hannah Talks and Alyssa Doesn't.

University of Was.h.i.+ngton studies on babies' language and video use: Zimmerman et al. (2007a) and Zimmerman et al. (2007b). Zimmerman et al. (2007a) and Zimmerman et al. (2007b).

Infant language measure/CDI: The Zimmerman et al. studies employed what's known as the "Short-form CDI"-a list of 89 words that are considered highly indicative of the breadth of a young child's vocabulary. The full-form CDI is a list of every word-it's meant to create a real-time index of a child's entire vocabulary-but, depending on the age of the child, it can take trained researchers as much as two to three hours to administer the full CDI. Therefore, in phone surveys such as those conducted by the University of Was.h.i.+ngton, the Short-form CDI is really the only practical alternative-and its results are reliable enough to satisfy scholars in the field. Indeed, some consider the full-CDI to be ideal for the scientist, but overkill for the parent and child. Author notes from IASCL Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland (2008); and Fenson et al. (2000). The Zimmerman et al. studies employed what's known as the "Short-form CDI"-a list of 89 words that are considered highly indicative of the breadth of a young child's vocabulary. The full-form CDI is a list of every word-it's meant to create a real-time index of a child's entire vocabulary-but, depending on the age of the child, it can take trained researchers as much as two to three hours to administer the full CDI. Therefore, in phone surveys such as those conducted by the University of Was.h.i.+ngton, the Short-form CDI is really the only practical alternative-and its results are reliable enough to satisfy scholars in the field. Indeed, some consider the full-CDI to be ideal for the scientist, but overkill for the parent and child. Author notes from IASCL Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland (2008); and Fenson et al. (2000).

Aigner-Clark credits Kuhl: Burr (1997) and Morris (1997). Burr (1997) and Morris (1997).

Infant segmentation of language: Jusczyk (1999); Newman et al. (2006); and Newman et al. (2003). Jusczyk (1999); Newman et al. (2006); and Newman et al. (2003).

Simultaneity of sensory input: Bahrick and Lickliter (2002); Bahrick and Lickliter (2000); Gogate and Bahrick (1998); and Hollich et al. (2005) Bahrick and Lickliter (2002); Bahrick and Lickliter (2000); Gogate and Bahrick (1998); and Hollich et al. (2005) Acquisition of nouns and "closed cla.s.s" words: Goodman et al. (2008). Goodman et al. (2008).

Infant/parent verbal turn-taking predicts cognitive ability: Tamis-LeMonda and Bornstein (2002). Tamis-LeMonda and Bornstein (2002).

Motionese and word learning: Schwade et al. (2004). Schwade et al. (2004).

Value of multiple speakers for word learning: Rost and McMurray (2008). Rost and McMurray (2008).

45% of utterances to a two-year-old begin with one of 17 words: Cameron-Faulkner et al. (2003). Cameron-Faulkner et al. (2003).

Comparison of word acquisition in European and Korean languages: Bornstein et al. (2004). Bornstein et al. (2004).

Use of frames and variation sets: In a two-year-long study of children 14 to 30 months of age, by 30 months, those children whose parents had used more variation sets had more advanced language-both in the number of words they knew and the structure of their syntax. Fernald and Hurtado (2006); Bornstein et al. (1999); Waterfall (2009); and Waterfall (2006). In a two-year-long study of children 14 to 30 months of age, by 30 months, those children whose parents had used more variation sets had more advanced language-both in the number of words they knew and the structure of their syntax. Fernald and Hurtado (2006); Bornstein et al. (1999); Waterfall (2009); and Waterfall (2006).

Shape bias: Author interviews with Samuelson and Smith; also Samuelson (2008); Samuelson and Horst (2004); Samuelson (2002); Samuelson (2000); Smith (2008); and Smith et al. (2002). Author interviews with Samuelson and Smith; also Samuelson (2008); Samuelson and Horst (2004); Samuelson (2002); Samuelson (2000); Smith (2008); and Smith et al. (2002).

Growth of a child's vocabulary: Goodman et al. (2008) Goodman et al. (2008) Conclusion Scholars' rea.s.sessment of the hedonic treadmill: Diener et al. (2006). Diener et al. (2006).

Effects of praise on adults: See, for example, McCausland et al. (2007) and Earley (1986). See, for example, McCausland et al. (2007) and Earley (1986).

Children's orthogonal development of virtue and vice: Another example comes from Padilla-Walker-she's seen that parents' efforts to inculcate children with prosocial values impacts the children's prosocial att.i.tudes and behavior-but it doesn't seem to change their antisocial behavior or att.i.tudes. Padilla-Walker (2007) and Padilla-Walker and Carlo (2007). Another example comes from Padilla-Walker-she's seen that parents' efforts to inculcate children with prosocial values impacts the children's prosocial att.i.tudes and behavior-but it doesn't seem to change their antisocial behavior or att.i.tudes. Padilla-Walker (2007) and Padilla-Walker and Carlo (2007).

Kids who know they like the taste of fruit don't eat more apples: Unfortunately, we aren't speaking hypothetically here. A team from the University of California, Los Angeles was hired to evaluate the efficacy of the Nutrition Network, a program 325 schools within the Los Angeles Unified School District were using in their cla.s.srooms to promote better eating habits. The researchers surveyed nearly a thousand third, fourth, and fifth graders. They found that almost all kids-in or out of the program-knew that fruit tastes good and that it's good for them. (The kids also knew the benefits of vegetables-even if they didn't like the taste.) But despite knowing that, the kids ate about one piece of fruit a day, and slightly less than one serving of vegetables. The scholars had wondered if the cost of fresh produce might be the obstacle to eating more, but less than one percent of students said their parents couldn't afford fresh goods. Instead, the number one reason kids didn't fulfill their daily requirement was that they simply wanted something else to eat. Prelip et al. (2006). Unfortunately, we aren't speaking hypothetically here. A team from the University of California, Los Angeles was hired to evaluate the efficacy of the Nutrition Network, a program 325 schools within the Los Angeles Unified School District were using in their cla.s.srooms to promote better eating habits. The researchers surveyed nearly a thousand third, fourth, and fifth graders. They found that almost all kids-in or out of the program-knew that fruit tastes good and that it's good for them. (The kids also knew the benefits of vegetables-even if they didn't like the taste.) But despite knowing that, the kids ate about one piece of fruit a day, and slightly less than one serving of vegetables. The scholars had wondered if the cost of fresh produce might be the obstacle to eating more, but less than one percent of students said their parents couldn't afford fresh goods. Instead, the number one reason kids didn't fulfill their daily requirement was that they simply wanted something else to eat. Prelip et al. (2006).

SELECTED SOURCES AND REFERENCES.

In addition to the numerous interviews we conducted, the following is a list of significant research materials and conference presentations that directly informed the text.

Introduction.

Bartels, Andreas, and Semir Zeki, "The Neural Correlates of Maternal and Romantic Love," NeuroImage NeuroImage, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 11551166 (2004).

Lorberbaum, Jeffrey P., John D. Newman, Amy R. Horwitz, Judy R. Dubno, R. Bruce Lydiard, Mark B. Hamner, Daryl E. Bohning, and Mark S. George, "A Potential Role for Thalamocingulate Circuitry in Human Maternal Behavior," Biological Psychiatry Biological Psychiatry, vol. 51, no. 6, pp. 431445 (2002).

Noriuchi, Madoka, Yos.h.i.+aki Kikuchi, and Atsus.h.i.+ Senoo, "The Functional Neuroanatomy of Maternal Love: Mother's Response to Infant's Attachment Behaviors," Biological Psychiatry Biological Psychiatry, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 415423 (2008).

Swain, James E., Jeffrey P. Lorberbaum, Samet Kose, and Lane Strathearn, "Brain Basis of Early Parent-Infant Interactions: Psychology, Physiology, and In Vivo Functional Neuroimaging Studies," Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 48, nos. 34, pp. 262287 (2007).

Chapter 1, The Inverse Power of Praise.

Ahuja, Anjana, "Forget Self-Esteem and Learn Some Humility," The Times The Times (London), p. A1 (May 17, 2005). (London), p. A1 (May 17, 2005).

Anderson, D. Chris, Charles R. Crowell, Mark Doman, and George S. Howard, "Performance Posting, Goal Setting, and Activity-Contingent Praise as Applied to a University Hockey Team," Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 8795 (1988).

Baumeister, Roy F., Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger, and Kathleen D. Vohs, "Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness or Healthier Lifestyles?" Psychological Science in the Public Interest Psychological Science in the Public Interest, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 144 (2003).

Baumeister, Roy F., Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger, and Kathleen D. Vohs, "Exploding the Self-Esteem Myth," Scientific American Scientific American, vol. 292, pp. 8492 (2005).

Baumeister, Roy F., Debra G. Hutton, and Kenneth J. Cairns, "Negative Effects of Praise on Skilled Performance," Basic and Applied Psychology Basic and Applied Psychology, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 131148 (1990).

Blackwell, Lisa Sorich, Kali H. Trzesniewski, and Carol S. Dweck, "Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and an Intervention," Child Development Child Development, vol. 78, no. 1, pp. 246263 (2007).

Campanella Bracken, Cheryl, Leo W. Jeffres, and Kimberly A. Neuendorf, "Criticism or Praise? The Impact of Verbal Versus Text-Only Computer Feedback on Social Presence, Intrinsic Motivation, and Recall," CyberPsychology & Behavior CyberPsychology & Behavior, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 349357 (2004).

"Chat Wrap-Up: Student Motivation, What Works, What Doesn't," Education Week Education Week, vol. 26, no. 3, p. 38 (2006).

Cole, David A., Joan M. Martin, Lachlan A. Peeke, A. D. Seroczynski, and Jonathan Fier, "Children's Over- and Underestimation of Academic Competence: A Longitudinal Study of Gender Difference, Depression and Anxiety," Child Development Child Development, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 459473 (1999).

Crocker, Jennifer, Interview with Neal Conan, Talk of the Nation Talk of the Nation, National Public Radio. Was.h.i.+ngtonDC (Aug. 3, 2005).

Dweck, Carol S., "Caution-Praise Can Be Dangerous," American Educator American Educator, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 49 (1999).

Dweck, Carol S., Mindset Mindset. New York: Ballantine (2006).

Dweck, Carol S., "The Perils and Promise of Praise," Educational Leaders.h.i.+p Educational Leaders.h.i.+p, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 3439 (2007).