On Food And Cooking Part 51

Mints

Mentha Mentha species species

Oregano

Origanum Origanum species species

Perilla

Perilla frutescens Perilla frutescens

Rosemary

Rosmarinus officinalis Rosmarinus officinalis

Sage

Salvia officinalis Salvia officinalis

Savory

Satureja Satureja species species

Thyme

Thymus vulgaris Thymus vulgaris

Both of the major culinary mints have a refres.h.i.+ng quality, but they are quite different. Spearmint has a distinctive aroma thanks to a particular terpene, L-carvone, and a richness and complexity thanks to pyridines, nitrogen-containing compounds more typical of roasted foods than raw ones. Spearmint is widely used in the Eastern Mediterranean as well as in India and Southeast Asia, in large quant.i.ties, both fresh and cooked, and in both sweet and savory contexts. Simpler, clearer-tasting peppermint contains little or no carvone or pyridines; instead it makes a terpene called menthol, menthol, which gives it a uniquely cooling quality. In addition to having its own aroma, menthol actually binds to receptors on temperature-sensing nerve cells in the mouth, and causes those cells to signal the brain that they are cooler than they really are by 713F/47C. Menthol is a reactive chemical that rapidly degenerates when heated, so peppermint is usually not cooked. Its concentration increases with the age of the leaf, so older leaves taste more cooling; hot and dry growing conditions cause menthol to be transformed into a noncooling, somewhat harsh by-product (pulegone, the characteristic volatile in pennyroyal). which gives it a uniquely cooling quality. In addition to having its own aroma, menthol actually binds to receptors on temperature-sensing nerve cells in the mouth, and causes those cells to signal the brain that they are cooler than they really are by 713F/47C. Menthol is a reactive chemical that rapidly degenerates when heated, so peppermint is usually not cooked. Its concentration increases with the age of the leaf, so older leaves taste more cooling; hot and dry growing conditions cause menthol to be transformed into a noncooling, somewhat harsh by-product (pulegone, the characteristic volatile in pennyroyal).

A handful of other mints are worth knowing about. Watermint, one of the parents of peppermint and sometimes called bergamot or orange mint, has a strong aroma and used to be much cultivated in Europe, but now is more popular in Southeast Asia. Pennyroyal (M. pulegium) is an especially pungent, peppery minor mint, apple or pineapple mint (M. suaveolens suaveolens) a sweet, apple-like one, and Mentha x piperata Mentha x piperata "citrata" the perfumy lemon or eau de cologne mint. "citrata" the perfumy lemon or eau de cologne mint. Nepitella Nepitella is the Italian name for is the Italian name for Calamintha nepeta, Calamintha nepeta, a sometimes minty, sometimes pungent herb native to the southern Mediterranean, used in Tuscany to flavor pork, mushroom, and artichoke dishes. "Korean mint" comes from an anise-flavored Asian member of the mint family, a sometimes minty, sometimes pungent herb native to the southern Mediterranean, used in Tuscany to flavor pork, mushroom, and artichoke dishes. "Korean mint" comes from an anise-flavored Asian member of the mint family, Agastache rugosa. Agastache rugosa.

Oregano There are about 40 species in the Mediterranean genus There are about 40 species in the Mediterranean genus Origanum, Origanum, most of them low, shrubby inhabitants of rocky places. The name comes from the Greek for "joy (or ornament) of the mountains," though we have no evidence about how the Greeks enjoyed it. Oregano was little known in the United States until the rise of the pizza after World War II. Oregano species easily form hybrids with each other, so it's not easy to sort out ident.i.ties. The important thing for the cook is that they come in a range of flavors, from mild to strong and penetrating. The penetrating quality comes from the phenolic compound carvacrol. Greek oreganos are typically rich in carvacrol, while milder Italian, Turkish, and Spanish oreganos contain more thyme-like thymol and fresh, green, floral, and woody terpenes. most of them low, shrubby inhabitants of rocky places. The name comes from the Greek for "joy (or ornament) of the mountains," though we have no evidence about how the Greeks enjoyed it. Oregano was little known in the United States until the rise of the pizza after World War II. Oregano species easily form hybrids with each other, so it's not easy to sort out ident.i.ties. The important thing for the cook is that they come in a range of flavors, from mild to strong and penetrating. The penetrating quality comes from the phenolic compound carvacrol. Greek oreganos are typically rich in carvacrol, while milder Italian, Turkish, and Spanish oreganos contain more thyme-like thymol and fresh, green, floral, and woody terpenes.

Mexican oregano is an entirely different plant, various species of the Mexican genus Lippia, Lippia, a member of the verbena family. Some varieties do have a high carvacrol content, some more resemble thyme, and some are more woody and piney. They all have a substantially higher essential oil content than true oregano (34% in the dry leaf, vs. 1%), and therefore seem stronger. a member of the verbena family. Some varieties do have a high carvacrol content, some more resemble thyme, and some are more woody and piney. They all have a substantially higher essential oil content than true oregano (34% in the dry leaf, vs. 1%), and therefore seem stronger.

Despite its name, Cuban oregano is an Asian member of the mint family, Plectranthus amboinicus, Plectranthus amboinicus, with fuzzy succulent leaves and a good dose of carvacrol. It's now widely cultivated throughout the tropics; in India the fresh leaves are battered and fried. with fuzzy succulent leaves and a good dose of carvacrol. It's now widely cultivated throughout the tropics; in India the fresh leaves are battered and fried.

Perilla or s.h.i.+so Perilla is the leaf of Perilla is the leaf of Perilla frutescens, Perilla frutescens, a mint relative native to China and India. It was taken to j.a.pan in the 8th or 9th century and named s.h.i.+so; many Westerners get their first taste of it in sus.h.i.+ restaurants. The distinctive aroma of perilla is due to a terpene called perillaldehyde, which has a fatty, herbaceous, spicy character. There are several different perilla varieties, some green, some red to purple with anthocyanins, some with no perillaldehyde and instead tasting of dill or lemon. The j.a.panese eat the leaves and flower heads with seafood and grilled meats, and use a red variety to color and flavor the popular pickled plum, umebos.h.i.+. Koreans obtain both flavor and cooking oil from perilla seeds. a mint relative native to China and India. It was taken to j.a.pan in the 8th or 9th century and named s.h.i.+so; many Westerners get their first taste of it in sus.h.i.+ restaurants. The distinctive aroma of perilla is due to a terpene called perillaldehyde, which has a fatty, herbaceous, spicy character. There are several different perilla varieties, some green, some red to purple with anthocyanins, some with no perillaldehyde and instead tasting of dill or lemon. The j.a.panese eat the leaves and flower heads with seafood and grilled meats, and use a red variety to color and flavor the popular pickled plum, umebos.h.i.+. Koreans obtain both flavor and cooking oil from perilla seeds.

Rosemary Rosemary is a distinctive woody shrub, Rosemary is a distinctive woody shrub, Rosmarinus officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, that grows in the dry Mediterranean scrublands, with leaves so narrow and tightly rolled that they look like pine needles. It has a strong, composite scent, made up of woody, pine, floral, eucalyptus, and clove notes. In southern France and Italy it traditionally flavors grilled meats, but it can also complement sweet dishes. Rosemary aroma is unusually well preserved by drying. that grows in the dry Mediterranean scrublands, with leaves so narrow and tightly rolled that they look like pine needles. It has a strong, composite scent, made up of woody, pine, floral, eucalyptus, and clove notes. In southern France and Italy it traditionally flavors grilled meats, but it can also complement sweet dishes. Rosemary aroma is unusually well preserved by drying.

Sage The genus The genus Salvia Salvia is the largest in the mint family, with around a thousand species that are rich in unusual chemicals, and have been used in many different folk medicines. The genus name comes from a Latin root meaning "health." Sage extracts have been found to be excellent antimicrobial and antioxidant materials. However, common garden sage, is the largest in the mint family, with around a thousand species that are rich in unusual chemicals, and have been used in many different folk medicines. The genus name comes from a Latin root meaning "health." Sage extracts have been found to be excellent antimicrobial and antioxidant materials. However, common garden sage, S. officinalis, S. officinalis, is rich in two terpene derivatives, thujone and camphor, that are toxic to the nervous system, so its use as anything but an occasional flavoring is not a good idea. is rich in two terpene derivatives, thujone and camphor, that are toxic to the nervous system, so its use as anything but an occasional flavoring is not a good idea.

Common or Dalmatian sage has a penetrating, warm quality from thujone, the note of camphor, and a eucalyptus note from cineole. Greek sage (S. fruticosa) has more cineole, while clary sage (S. sclarea) is very different, with a tea-like quality and floral and sweet notes from a number of other terpenes (linalool, geraniol, terpineol). Spanish sage, S. lavandulaefolia, S. lavandulaefolia, is fresher-smelling and less distinctive, with pine, eucalyptus, citrus, and other notes partly replacing thujone. Pineapple sage, is fresher-smelling and less distinctive, with pine, eucalyptus, citrus, and other notes partly replacing thujone. Pineapple sage, S. elegans (rutilans S. elegans (rutilans), comes from Mexico and is said to have a sweet, fruity aroma.

Sage is especially prominent in northern Italian cooking, and in the U.S. flavors poultry stuffings and seasonings and pork sausages; it seems to have an affinity for fat. Most dried sage used to be "Dalmatian" sage, from the Balkan coast; today Albania and other Mediterranean countries are the largest producers. "Rubbed" sage is minimally ground and coa.r.s.ely sieved leaves; it loses its aroma more slowly than finely ground sage.

Savory Savory comes in two types, which are two species of the northern-hemisphere genus Savory comes in two types, which are two species of the northern-hemisphere genus Satureja. Satureja. Both summer savory ( Both summer savory (S. hortensis) and winter savory (S. montana) taste like a mixture of oregano and thyme; they contain both carvacrol and thymol. Summer savory is often the milder of the two. It's thought that savory may well be the parent genus of the various oreganos and marjoram. A native of western North America, S. douglasii, S. douglasii, is known as yerba buena in California, and has a mild, mint-like flavor. is known as yerba buena in California, and has a mild, mint-like flavor.

Thyme Thyme got its name from the Greeks, who used it as an aromatic in their burnt sacrifices; it shares its root with the words for "spirit" and "smoke." There are a lot of thymes: 6070 species in the shrubby, tiny-leaved, mainly Mediterranean genus Thyme got its name from the Greeks, who used it as an aromatic in their burnt sacrifices; it shares its root with the words for "spirit" and "smoke." There are a lot of thymes: 6070 species in the shrubby, tiny-leaved, mainly Mediterranean genus Thymus, Thymus, and as many or more varieties of the common thyme, and as many or more varieties of the common thyme, Thymus vulgaris. Thymus vulgaris. There are also many flavors of thyme, including lemon, mint, pineapple, caraway, and nutmeg. A number of thyme species and varieties taste much like oregano because they contain carvacrol. Distinctive thyme species and varieties are rich in the phenolic compound called thymol. Thymol is a kinder, gentler version of carvacrol, penetrating and spicy, but not as aggressively so. It's this moderate quality that probably endeared thymol thyme to the French, and that makes it a more versatile flavoring than oregano and savory; European cooks have long used it in meat and vegetable dishes of all kinds. Despite its gentler aroma, thymol is as powerful a chemical as carvacrol, which is why thyme oil has long been used as an antimicrobial agent in mouthwashes and skin creams. There are also many flavors of thyme, including lemon, mint, pineapple, caraway, and nutmeg. A number of thyme species and varieties taste much like oregano because they contain carvacrol. Distinctive thyme species and varieties are rich in the phenolic compound called thymol. Thymol is a kinder, gentler version of carvacrol, penetrating and spicy, but not as aggressively so. It's this moderate quality that probably endeared thymol thyme to the French, and that makes it a more versatile flavoring than oregano and savory; European cooks have long used it in meat and vegetable dishes of all kinds. Despite its gentler aroma, thymol is as powerful a chemical as carvacrol, which is why thyme oil has long been used as an antimicrobial agent in mouthwashes and skin creams.

The Carrot Family Though the carrot family gave fewer flavoring plants to Europe than the mint family, it is remarkable for including several that provide aromatic interest as both herb and spice, and some even as vegetables. Members of the carrot family grow in less extreme conditions than the Mediterranean mints, are generally tender biennials rather than shrubby or woody perennials, and have flavors that are generally milder, sometimes even sweet. The seeds (actually small dry fruits) may have chemical defenses - and therefore are spices - because they're fairly large and tempting to insects and birds. One terpene, myristicin, shared by dill, parsley, fennel, and carrots, and giving them a common woody, warm note, is thought to be a defense against molds. The aromatic compounds are stored in oil ca.n.a.ls within the leaves, under large and small veins, and are generally found in smaller quant.i.ties than the externally stored defenses of the mint family.

Angelica Angelica is a large, rangy plant of northern Europe, Angelica is a large, rangy plant of northern Europe, Angelica archangelica, Angelica archangelica, that has fresh, pine, and citrus notes, but is dominated by a sweet-smelling compound called the angelica lactone. Its candied stems were a popular delicacy from medieval times through the 19th century, but they're seldom seen in the kitchen nowadays. Various parts of the plant now flavor gins, ver-mouths, liqueurs, candies, perfumes, and other manufactured products. that has fresh, pine, and citrus notes, but is dominated by a sweet-smelling compound called the angelica lactone. Its candied stems were a popular delicacy from medieval times through the 19th century, but they're seldom seen in the kitchen nowadays. Various parts of the plant now flavor gins, ver-mouths, liqueurs, candies, perfumes, and other manufactured products.

Celery Celery was a thin-stalked, aromatic but bitter herb called smallage before gardeners developed the mild, thick-stalked vegetable. Celery was a thin-stalked, aromatic but bitter herb called smallage before gardeners developed the mild, thick-stalked vegetable. Apium graveolens Apium graveolens is a native of damp European habitats near the sea. The distinctive flavor of its leaves and stalks comes from compounds called phthalides, which it shares with lovage and with walnuts. It also has citrus and fresh notes. Celery is often simmered or sauteed with onions and carrots to provide a broad aromatic base for sauces and braises. is a native of damp European habitats near the sea. The distinctive flavor of its leaves and stalks comes from compounds called phthalides, which it shares with lovage and with walnuts. It also has citrus and fresh notes. Celery is often simmered or sauteed with onions and carrots to provide a broad aromatic base for sauces and braises.

Chervil Chervil ( Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) has small, pale, finely divided leaves, and a delicate flavor that comes from relatively small amounts of the tarragon aromatic estragole; it's best used raw or barely warmed, since heat drives away its flavor. Chervil is a component of the French mixture fines herbes. fines herbes.

Herbs of the Carrot Family

Angelica

Angelica archangelica Angelica archangelica

Celery

Apium graveolens Apium graveolens

Chervil

Anthriscus cerefolium Anthriscus cerefolium

Coriander leaf

Coriandrum sativum Coriandrum sativum

Dill

Anethum graveolens Anethum graveolens

Fennel

Foeniculum vulgare Foeniculum vulgare

Lovage

Levistic.u.m officinale Levistic.u.m officinale

Mitsuba

Cryptotaenia j.a.ponica Cryptotaenia j.a.ponica

Parsley

Petroselinum crispum Petroselinum crispum

Saw-leaf herb

Eryngium foetidum Eryngium foetidum

Coriander Coriander or cilantro is said to be the most world's most widely consumed fresh herb. Coriander or cilantro is said to be the most world's most widely consumed fresh herb. Coriandrum sativum Coriandrum sativum is a native of the Middle East. Its seed has been found in Bronze Age settlements and in the tomb of King Tut; it was taken early to China, India, and Southeast Asia, and later to Latin America, and its rounded, notched, tender leaves are popular in all these regions. In Central and South America they came to replace culantro (p. 408), an indigenous relative with very similar flavor, but with large, tough leaves. Coriander herb is not very popular in the Mediterranean and Europe, where its aroma is sometimes described as "soapy." The main component of the aroma is a fatty aldehyde, decenal, which also provides the "waxy" note in orange peel. Decenal is very reactive, so coriander leaf quickly loses its aroma when heated. It's therefore used most often as a garnish or in uncooked preparations. In Thailand, the root of the herb is an ingredient in some pounded spice pastes; the root contains no decenal and instead contributes woody and green notes, something like parsley. is a native of the Middle East. Its seed has been found in Bronze Age settlements and in the tomb of King Tut; it was taken early to China, India, and Southeast Asia, and later to Latin America, and its rounded, notched, tender leaves are popular in all these regions. In Central and South America they came to replace culantro (p. 408), an indigenous relative with very similar flavor, but with large, tough leaves. Coriander herb is not very popular in the Mediterranean and Europe, where its aroma is sometimes described as "soapy." The main component of the aroma is a fatty aldehyde, decenal, which also provides the "waxy" note in orange peel. Decenal is very reactive, so coriander leaf quickly loses its aroma when heated. It's therefore used most often as a garnish or in uncooked preparations. In Thailand, the root of the herb is an ingredient in some pounded spice pastes; the root contains no decenal and instead contributes woody and green notes, something like parsley.

Dill Dill ( Dill (Anethum graveolens) is a native of southwest Asia and India with tough stalks but very delicate, feather-like leaves. Dill was known in ancient Egypt, and became popular in northern Europe, perhaps thanks to its affinity with the local native caraway. Dillweed blends the distinctive flavor of its seed with pleasant green, fresh notes and a unique, characteristic note of its own (dill ether), and in Western cooking is most often used with fish. It is prepared in large amounts, almost as a vegetable and often with rice, in Greece and in Asia. India has its own distinctive variety, A. graveolens A. graveolens var. var. sowa, sowa, which is used as a vegetable as well as for its seeds. which is used as a vegetable as well as for its seeds.

Fennel Fennel is a native of the Mediterranean and southwest Asia; like dill, it has fibrous leaf stalks but feathery, tender leaves. There is one species of fennel, Fennel is a native of the Mediterranean and southwest Asia; like dill, it has fibrous leaf stalks but feathery, tender leaves. There is one species of fennel, Foeniculum vulgare, Foeniculum vulgare, and it comes in three different forms. The wild subspecies, and it comes in three different forms. The wild subspecies, piperitum, piperitum, is sometimes collected from the countryside in southern Italy and Sicily, where it's known as carosella and valued for its sharpness in meat and fish cooking. (Fennel now grows wild throughout central California as well.) The cultivated subspecies is sometimes collected from the countryside in southern Italy and Sicily, where it's known as carosella and valued for its sharpness in meat and fish cooking. (Fennel now grows wild throughout central California as well.) The cultivated subspecies vulgare vulgare is known as sweet fennel thanks to its far richer content of the phenolic compound anethole, which is 13 times sweeter than table sugar, and also gives the characteristic sweet aroma of anise. And a specialized variety of sweet fennel, var. is known as sweet fennel thanks to its far richer content of the phenolic compound anethole, which is 13 times sweeter than table sugar, and also gives the characteristic sweet aroma of anise. And a specialized variety of sweet fennel, var. azoric.u.m, azoric.u.m, develops the enlarged leaf-stalk bases of bulb or Florence fennel, which is used as an aromatic vegetable. develops the enlarged leaf-stalk bases of bulb or Florence fennel, which is used as an aromatic vegetable.

Lovage Lovage ( Lovage (Levistic.u.m officinale) is a large western Asian plant that has aromat-ics in common with celery and oregano, along with a sweet, flowery note. It was used in ancient Greece and Rome and known as Ligurian celery. Today its large lobed leaves flavor beef dishes in central Europe, and tomato sauces in Liguria. Elsewhere it's little known.

Carrot family anatomy. A leaf of parsley. Herbs in the carrot family have defensive oil glands within their leaves, not on the surfaces. The glands cl.u.s.ter around long ca.n.a.ls and fill them with the essential oil.

Mitsuba Mitsuba, sometimes called j.a.panese parsley, is a native of both Asia and North America, Mitsuba, sometimes called j.a.panese parsley, is a native of both Asia and North America, Cryptotaenia j.a.ponica Cryptotaenia j.a.ponica (or (or canadensis canadensis), whose mild, large leaves are used by the j.a.panese in soups and salads. They're flavored mainly by a mixture of minor, woody-resinous terpenes (germacrene, selinene, farnesene, elemene).

Parsley Parsley is a native of southeast Europe and west Asia; its name comes from the Greek and means "rock celery." Parsley is a native of southeast Europe and west Asia; its name comes from the Greek and means "rock celery." Petroselinum crispum Petroselinum crispum is one of the most important herbs in European cooking, perhaps because its distinctive flavor (from menthatriene) is accompanied by fresh, green, woody notes that are somewhat generic and therefore complement many foods. When parsley is chopped, its distinctive note fades, the green notes become dominant, and a faintly fruity note develops. There are both curly-and flat-leaf varieties with different characteristics; the flat leaves have a strong parsley flavor when young and later develop a woody note, while curly leaves start out mild and woody and develop the parsley character when more mature. The curly leaves are smaller and more incised and therefore crisp faster when fried. is one of the most important herbs in European cooking, perhaps because its distinctive flavor (from menthatriene) is accompanied by fresh, green, woody notes that are somewhat generic and therefore complement many foods. When parsley is chopped, its distinctive note fades, the green notes become dominant, and a faintly fruity note develops. There are both curly-and flat-leaf varieties with different characteristics; the flat leaves have a strong parsley flavor when young and later develop a woody note, while curly leaves start out mild and woody and develop the parsley character when more mature. The curly leaves are smaller and more incised and therefore crisp faster when fried.

Saw-Leaf Herb Saw-leaf herb or culantro is the New World's version of coriander leaf (cilantro), still used in the Caribbean but now most commonly found in Asian cooking. There are more than a hundred species of Saw-leaf herb or culantro is the New World's version of coriander leaf (cilantro), still used in the Caribbean but now most commonly found in Asian cooking. There are more than a hundred species of Eryngium, Eryngium, some of them in Europe, but some of them in Europe, but E. foetidum E. foetidum comes from subtropical South America, and is easier to grow in hot climates. Culantro has almost the same flavor as fresh coriander leaf, the main aromatic component being a slightly longer fatty aldehyde than coriander's (dodeca.n.a.l). Its leaves are large and elongated, with a serrated edge, and thicker and tougher than coriander leaves. They're frequently used in Vietnamese dishes, often torn and strewn on just before eating. comes from subtropical South America, and is easier to grow in hot climates. Culantro has almost the same flavor as fresh coriander leaf, the main aromatic component being a slightly longer fatty aldehyde than coriander's (dodeca.n.a.l). Its leaves are large and elongated, with a serrated edge, and thicker and tougher than coriander leaves. They're frequently used in Vietnamese dishes, often torn and strewn on just before eating.

The Laurel Family The ancient laurel family, mostly large tropical trees, is most notable for giving us cinnamon; but it does give us one well-known herb and three less familiar but interesting ones. The leaves of various cinnamon species are also used as herbs in Asia, but are seldom seen in the West.

Avocado Leaf Mexican races of the avocado tree ( Mexican races of the avocado tree (Persea americana) have leaves with a distinct tarragon aroma, thanks to the same volatiles that flavor tarragon and anise (estragole, anethole). More tropical avocado races (p. 337) lack this aroma. In Mexico, avocado leaves are dried, then crumbled or ground to flavor chicken, fish, and bean dishes.

Bay Laurel Bay leaves, one of the most useful European herbs, come from an evergreen tree or shrub native to the hot Mediterranean, Laurus n.o.bilis. Laurus n.o.bilis. The medium-sized, tough, dry leaf acc.u.mulates oils in spherical glands in the leaf interior, and has a well-rounded mixture of woody, floral, eucalyptus, and clove notes. The leaves are generally dried in the shade. Laurel branches were made into fragrant crowns in the ancient world; today the leaves are a standard ingredient in many savory dishes. The medium-sized, tough, dry leaf acc.u.mulates oils in spherical glands in the leaf interior, and has a well-rounded mixture of woody, floral, eucalyptus, and clove notes. The leaves are generally dried in the shade. Laurel branches were made into fragrant crowns in the ancient world; today the leaves are a standard ingredient in many savory dishes.

California Bay California bay leaves come from an entirely different tree, the California native California bay leaves come from an entirely different tree, the California native Umbellularia californica. Umbellularia californica. Their aroma bears some resemblance to bay laurel, though it is distinctly stronger, with a dominant eucalyptus note (from cineole). Their aroma bears some resemblance to bay laurel, though it is distinctly stronger, with a dominant eucalyptus note (from cineole).