On Food And Cooking Part 62

Roasting Though most legumes are cooked in liquid to soften their starch and cell walls, a few are parched in dry heat to create a crisp texture. Peanuts are the most commonly roasted of the legumes, thanks to their nut-like oil content and relatively tender cotyledons. Other beans with lower oil contents, notably soybeans and chickpeas, are also roasted to make a nut-like seed. Because their cotyledons are harder, they're soaked in water first, then roasted. The initial high temperature and moisture soften the cotyledon cell walls and starch granules; continued roasting evaporates most of the water to give a crisp rather than hard texture. The roasting can be done in a hot pan or oven, or - as is done in Asia - in sand that has been heated to 500600F/ 250300C. In India, for example, chickpeas are heated to around 180F/80C, moistened with water, rested for some hours, then roasted in hot sand so that they puff and the seed coat can be rubbed off. Though most legumes are cooked in liquid to soften their starch and cell walls, a few are parched in dry heat to create a crisp texture. Peanuts are the most commonly roasted of the legumes, thanks to their nut-like oil content and relatively tender cotyledons. Other beans with lower oil contents, notably soybeans and chickpeas, are also roasted to make a nut-like seed. Because their cotyledons are harder, they're soaked in water first, then roasted. The initial high temperature and moisture soften the cotyledon cell walls and starch granules; continued roasting evaporates most of the water to give a crisp rather than hard texture. The roasting can be done in a hot pan or oven, or - as is done in Asia - in sand that has been heated to 500600F/ 250300C. In India, for example, chickpeas are heated to around 180F/80C, moistened with water, rested for some hours, then roasted in hot sand so that they puff and the seed coat can be rubbed off.

Characteristics of Some common Legumes Fava or Broad Beans The fava bean or broad bean, The fava bean or broad bean, Vicia faba, Vicia faba, is the largest of the commonly eaten legumes, and was the only bean known to Europe until the discovery of the New World. It apparently originated in west or central Asia, and was among the earliest domesticated plants. Larger cultivated forms have been found in Mediterranean sites dating to 3000 is the largest of the commonly eaten legumes, and was the only bean known to Europe until the discovery of the New World. It apparently originated in west or central Asia, and was among the earliest domesticated plants. Larger cultivated forms have been found in Mediterranean sites dating to 3000 BCE BCE. There are several sizes, the largest of which seems to have been developed in the Mediterranean region around 500 CE CE. China is the world's largest producer.

Fava beans are unusual in having a thick, tough seed coat that's often removed from both the meaty cotyledons of the unripe green seeds and from the hard dry seeds. A blanching in alkaline water loosens and softens the coat. In Egypt, the popular dish called ful medames ful medames is made by boiling the mature beans until soft, then flavoring with salt, lemon juice, oil, and garlic. Mature fava beans are also sprouted, then boiled to make a soup. is made by boiling the mature beans until soft, then flavoring with salt, lemon juice, oil, and garlic. Mature fava beans are also sprouted, then boiled to make a soup.

Favism Eating fava beans is the cause of a serious disease, favism, in people who have an inherited deficiency of a particular enzyme. Most victims are children who live in the southern Mediterranean and Middle East, or whose ancestors came from that region. When they are exposed to two unusual amino-acid relatives (vicine and convicine) in the beans and in the flower pollen, their bodies metabolize these chemicals to forms that damage their red blood cells and cause serious, sometimes fatal anemia. The enzyme deficiency also turns out to suppress the growth of the malaria parasite in red blood cells, so it may actually have been an advantageous genetic trait before malaria was brought under control. Eating fava beans is the cause of a serious disease, favism, in people who have an inherited deficiency of a particular enzyme. Most victims are children who live in the southern Mediterranean and Middle East, or whose ancestors came from that region. When they are exposed to two unusual amino-acid relatives (vicine and convicine) in the beans and in the flower pollen, their bodies metabolize these chemicals to forms that damage their red blood cells and cause serious, sometimes fatal anemia. The enzyme deficiency also turns out to suppress the growth of the malaria parasite in red blood cells, so it may actually have been an advantageous genetic trait before malaria was brought under control.

Food Words: Bean, Frijol Bean, FrijolThe term "bean" that we apply to many different legumes from Eurasia, East Asia, and the Americas originally referred only to the fava bean. The Indo-European root bhabha bhabha gave us both "fava" and "bean." By Greek and Roman times, the African cowpea or black-eyed pea was also known in the Mediterranean and given the Latin name gave us both "fava" and "bean." By Greek and Roman times, the African cowpea or black-eyed pea was also known in the Mediterranean and given the Latin name phaseolus phaseolus - the source of the Spanish - the source of the Spanish frijol, frijol, and the scientific name for the common beans from the New World. and the scientific name for the common beans from the New World.

Chickpea or Garbanzo Chickpeas are a native of arid southwest Asia, and like the fava bean, pea, and lentil have been cultivated for about 9,000 years. There are two general types, desi and kabuli. Desi are closer to the wild chickpea, with small seeds, a thick, tough seed coat, and a dark color from abundant phenolic compounds. They're the main variety grown in Asia, Iran, Ethiopia, and Mexico. The kabuli type, more common in the Middle East and Mediterranean, is larger, cream-colored, with a thin, light seed coat. There are also varieties with dark green cotyledons. Chickpeas are notable among the legumes for being about 5% oil by weight; most others are 12%. Chickpeas are a native of arid southwest Asia, and like the fava bean, pea, and lentil have been cultivated for about 9,000 years. There are two general types, desi and kabuli. Desi are closer to the wild chickpea, with small seeds, a thick, tough seed coat, and a dark color from abundant phenolic compounds. They're the main variety grown in Asia, Iran, Ethiopia, and Mexico. The kabuli type, more common in the Middle East and Mediterranean, is larger, cream-colored, with a thin, light seed coat. There are also varieties with dark green cotyledons. Chickpeas are notable among the legumes for being about 5% oil by weight; most others are 12%.

The name comes from the bean's Latin name, cicer cicer; in the botanical name, Cicer arietinum, Cicer arietinum, the second word means "ram-like" and refers to the seed's resemblance to a ram's head, complete with curling horns. The Spanish the second word means "ram-like" and refers to the seed's resemblance to a ram's head, complete with curling horns. The Spanish garbanzo garbanzo derives from the Greek name. Today, this legume is a frequent ingredient in many Middle Eastern and Indian dishes. Hummus is a chickpea paste flavored with garlic, paprika, and lemon that is popular in the eastern Mediterranean; in parts of Italy, flatbreads are made from chickpea flour. Chickpeas are the most important legume in India, where they're hulled and split to make chana dal, ground into flour for papadums, pakoras, and other fried goods, and are boiled, roasted, and sprouted. derives from the Greek name. Today, this legume is a frequent ingredient in many Middle Eastern and Indian dishes. Hummus is a chickpea paste flavored with garlic, paprika, and lemon that is popular in the eastern Mediterranean; in parts of Italy, flatbreads are made from chickpea flour. Chickpeas are the most important legume in India, where they're hulled and split to make chana dal, ground into flour for papadums, pakoras, and other fried goods, and are boiled, roasted, and sprouted.

Common Bean, Lima Bean, Tepary Bean The common bean, lima bean, and tepary bean are the important domesticated species of the 30 or so species in the Central American genus The common bean, lima bean, and tepary bean are the important domesticated species of the 30 or so species in the Central American genus Phaseolus. Phaseolus.

Common Bean The most important species of The most important species of Phaseolus Phaseolus is is P. vulgaris, P. vulgaris, or the common bean. The ancestral plant was a native of southwestern Mexico, and the highest consumption of the common bean is still in Latin America. It first came under cultivation about 7,000 years ago, and gradually diffused both north and south, reaching the major continents about 2,000 years ago, and Europe during the age of exploration. The common bean has been developed into many hundreds of varieties of different sizes, shapes, seed-coat colors and color patterns, s.h.i.+niness, and flavors. Most large-seeded varieties (kidney, cranberry, large red, and white) came originally from the Andes, and became established in the American Northeast, Europe, and Africa; smaller-seeded central American types (pinto, black, small red, and white) were concentrated in the American Southwest. In the United States, there are more than a dozen commercial categories based on color and size. Beans are cooked in many ways: simply boiled, made into stews, soups, pastes, cakes, and sweet desserts. or the common bean. The ancestral plant was a native of southwestern Mexico, and the highest consumption of the common bean is still in Latin America. It first came under cultivation about 7,000 years ago, and gradually diffused both north and south, reaching the major continents about 2,000 years ago, and Europe during the age of exploration. The common bean has been developed into many hundreds of varieties of different sizes, shapes, seed-coat colors and color patterns, s.h.i.+niness, and flavors. Most large-seeded varieties (kidney, cranberry, large red, and white) came originally from the Andes, and became established in the American Northeast, Europe, and Africa; smaller-seeded central American types (pinto, black, small red, and white) were concentrated in the American Southwest. In the United States, there are more than a dozen commercial categories based on color and size. Beans are cooked in many ways: simply boiled, made into stews, soups, pastes, cakes, and sweet desserts.

Popping Bean A special kind of common bean is the nuna, or popping bean, which has been cultivated for several thousand years in the high Andes. It can be popped by just 34 minutes of high dry heat - a great advantage in the fuel-poor mountains - or in the microwave oven. It doesn't expand nearly as much as popcorn and remains fairly dense, with a powdery texture and nutty flavor. A special kind of common bean is the nuna, or popping bean, which has been cultivated for several thousand years in the high Andes. It can be popped by just 34 minutes of high dry heat - a great advantage in the fuel-poor mountains - or in the microwave oven. It doesn't expand nearly as much as popcorn and remains fairly dense, with a powdery texture and nutty flavor.

Lima Bean The use of the common bean in Peru was predated by the larger lima bean - the name derives from Peru's capital - which was native to Central America and domesticated somewhat later than the common bean. Both species were exported to Europe by Spanish explorers. The lima bean was introduced to Africa via the slave trade, and is now the main legume of that continent's tropics. The wild type and some tropical varieties contain potentially toxic quant.i.ties of a cyanide defense system, and must be thoroughly cooked to be safe (common commercial varieties are cyanide-free). Lima beans are eaten both fresh and dried. The use of the common bean in Peru was predated by the larger lima bean - the name derives from Peru's capital - which was native to Central America and domesticated somewhat later than the common bean. Both species were exported to Europe by Spanish explorers. The lima bean was introduced to Africa via the slave trade, and is now the main legume of that continent's tropics. The wild type and some tropical varieties contain potentially toxic quant.i.ties of a cyanide defense system, and must be thoroughly cooked to be safe (common commercial varieties are cyanide-free). Lima beans are eaten both fresh and dried.

Tepary Bean Tepary beans, small brown natives of the American southwest, are unusually tolerant of heat and water stress. They're especially rich in protein, iron, calcium, and fiber, and have a distinctive, sweet flavor reminiscent of maple sugar or mola.s.ses. Tepary beans, small brown natives of the American southwest, are unusually tolerant of heat and water stress. They're especially rich in protein, iron, calcium, and fiber, and have a distinctive, sweet flavor reminiscent of maple sugar or mola.s.ses.

Lentil The lentil is probably the oldest cultivated legume, contemporaneous with wheat and barley and often growing alongside these gra.s.ses. Its native ground is arid Southwest Asia, and it's now commonly eaten across Europe and Asia. Most lentils are produced in India and Turkey, with Canada a distant third. The Latin word for lentil, The lentil is probably the oldest cultivated legume, contemporaneous with wheat and barley and often growing alongside these gra.s.ses. Its native ground is arid Southwest Asia, and it's now commonly eaten across Europe and Asia. Most lentils are produced in India and Turkey, with Canada a distant third. The Latin word for lentil, lens, lens, gives us our word for a lentil-shaped, or doubly convex, piece of gla.s.s (the coinage dates from the 17th century). Lentils contain low levels of antinutritional factors and cook quickly. gives us our word for a lentil-shaped, or doubly convex, piece of gla.s.s (the coinage dates from the 17th century). Lentils contain low levels of antinutritional factors and cook quickly.

Lentils are divided into two groups: varieties with flat and large seeds, 5 mm or more across, and varieties with small, more rounded seeds. Large varieties are more commonly grown, while the small, finer-textured ones include the prized green French lentille du Puy, the black beluga, and the green Spanish pardina. There are varieties with brown, red, black, and green seedcoats; most have yellow cotyledons, though some are red or green. Green seed coats can turn brown with age and during cooking, thanks to the cl.u.s.tering of phenolic compounds into large pigmented complexes (p. 269). Because they are flat and thin, with thin seed coats, cooking water only has to penetrate a millimeter or two from each side, so lentils soften much more quickly than most beans and peas, in an hour or less.

Traditional lentil dishes include Indian masoor dal, whole or hulled and split red lentils cooked into a porridge, and Middle Eastern koshary koshary or or mujaddharah, mujaddharah, a mixture of whole lentils and rice. a mixture of whole lentils and rice.

Pea, Black-eyed Pea, Pigeon Pea Pea The pea has been cultivated for around 9,000 years and spread quite early from the Middle East to the Mediterranean, India, and China. It's a cool-climate legume that grows during the wet Mediterranean winter and in the spring of temperate countries. It was an important protein source in Europe in the Middle Ages and later, as the old children's rhyme attests: "Pease porridge hot, Pease porridge cold, Pease porridge in the pot, Nine days old." Today, two main varieties are cultivated: a starchy, smooth-coated one that gives us dried and split peas, and a wrinkly type with a higher sugar content, which is usually eaten when immature as a green vegetable. Peas are unusual among legumes in retaining some green chlorophyll in their dry cotyledons; their characteristic flavor comes from a compound related to the aroma compound in green peppers (a methoxy-isobutyl pyrazine). The pea has been cultivated for around 9,000 years and spread quite early from the Middle East to the Mediterranean, India, and China. It's a cool-climate legume that grows during the wet Mediterranean winter and in the spring of temperate countries. It was an important protein source in Europe in the Middle Ages and later, as the old children's rhyme attests: "Pease porridge hot, Pease porridge cold, Pease porridge in the pot, Nine days old." Today, two main varieties are cultivated: a starchy, smooth-coated one that gives us dried and split peas, and a wrinkly type with a higher sugar content, which is usually eaten when immature as a green vegetable. Peas are unusual among legumes in retaining some green chlorophyll in their dry cotyledons; their characteristic flavor comes from a compound related to the aroma compound in green peppers (a methoxy-isobutyl pyrazine).

Black-eyed Pea The so-called black-eyed pea or cowpea is not really a pea, but an African relative of the mung bean that was known to Greece and Rome and brought to the southern United States with the slave trade. It has an eye-like anthocyanin pigmentation around the hilum, and a distinctive aroma. A variety that produces a very long pod and small seeds is the yard-long bean, a common green vegetable in China (p. 336). The so-called black-eyed pea or cowpea is not really a pea, but an African relative of the mung bean that was known to Greece and Rome and brought to the southern United States with the slave trade. It has an eye-like anthocyanin pigmentation around the hilum, and a distinctive aroma. A variety that produces a very long pod and small seeds is the yard-long bean, a common green vegetable in China (p. 336).

Pigeon Pea Pigeon pea is a distant relative of the common bean, native to India, and now grown throughout the tropics. In India it's called toor dal or redgram because the tough seed coat of many varieties is reddish brown, though it's most often hulled and split, and the cotyledons are yellow. It's been cultivated for around 2,000 years, and is made into a simple porridge. Like the other grams, it contains little in the way of antinutritional factors. Pigeon pea is a distant relative of the common bean, native to India, and now grown throughout the tropics. In India it's called toor dal or redgram because the tough seed coat of many varieties is reddish brown, though it's most often hulled and split, and the cotyledons are yellow. It's been cultivated for around 2,000 years, and is made into a simple porridge. Like the other grams, it contains little in the way of antinutritional factors.

Mung Bean, Black Gram, Azuki The Grams The legume genus The legume genus Vigna, Vigna, which is native to the Old World, provides the small-seeded "grams" of India and a few other Asian and African seeds. Most of them have the advantages of being small, quick-cooking, and relatively free of antinutritional and discomforting compounds. Green gram, or mung beans, are native to India, spread early on to China, and are now the most widely grown of this group thanks to the popularity of their sprouts. Black gram or urad dal is the most prized of the legumes in India, where it has been cultivated for more than 5,000 years and is eaten whole, split and dehulled, and ground into flour for cakes and breads. which is native to the Old World, provides the small-seeded "grams" of India and a few other Asian and African seeds. Most of them have the advantages of being small, quick-cooking, and relatively free of antinutritional and discomforting compounds. Green gram, or mung beans, are native to India, spread early on to China, and are now the most widely grown of this group thanks to the popularity of their sprouts. Black gram or urad dal is the most prized of the legumes in India, where it has been cultivated for more than 5,000 years and is eaten whole, split and dehulled, and ground into flour for cakes and breads.

Rice beans are eaten primarily in Thailand and elsewhere in Indochina. The African bambara groundnut resembles the peanut in being borne underground and containing oil, but it isn't nearly as rich as the peanut. In West Africa, the seeds are eaten fresh, canned, boiled, roasted, and made into porridges and cakes.

Azuki Bean Azuki or adzuki (Chinese Azuki or adzuki (Chinese chi dou chi dou) is an East Asian species of Vigna, V. angularis, Vigna, V. angularis, about 8 by 5 by 5 mm, and most commonly a deep maroon color, which makes it a favorite ingredient for festive occasions. It was cultivated in Korea and China at least 3,000 years ago, and taken later to j.a.pan; it's now the second most important legume after the soybean in both Korea and j.a.pan. Azuki are a favorite sprouting seed, and are also candied, infused with sugar to make a dessert topping, and used as a base for a hot drink. In j.a.pan most of the azuki crop is made into about 8 by 5 by 5 mm, and most commonly a deep maroon color, which makes it a favorite ingredient for festive occasions. It was cultivated in Korea and China at least 3,000 years ago, and taken later to j.a.pan; it's now the second most important legume after the soybean in both Korea and j.a.pan. Azuki are a favorite sprouting seed, and are also candied, infused with sugar to make a dessert topping, and used as a base for a hot drink. In j.a.pan most of the azuki crop is made into an, an, a sweet paste composed of equal parts sugar and ground twice-boiled azuki, which are kneaded together. a sweet paste composed of equal parts sugar and ground twice-boiled azuki, which are kneaded together.

Lupins Lupins, Lupins, lupini lupini in Italian, come from several different species of in Italian, come from several different species of Lupinus Lupinus ( (albus, angustifolius, luteus). They're unusual because they contain no starch - they're 3040% protein, 510% oil, and up to 50% soluble but indigestible carbohydrates (soluble fiber, p. 258). Though there are some "sweet" types that require no special processing, many varieties contain bitter and toxic alkaloids and so are soaked in water for up to several days to leach these substances out. They're then boiled until soft, and served in oil, or toasted and salted. A New World species, L. mutabilis, L. mutabilis, grown in the Andes, has a protein content approaching 50% of the dry seed weight. grown in the Andes, has a protein content approaching 50% of the dry seed weight.

Soybeans and Their Transformations Finally, the most versatile legume. Soybeans were domesticated in northern China more than 3,000 years ago, and eventually became a staple food throughout much of Asia; their spread was probably contemporary with and encouraged by the vegetarian doctrine of Buddhism. They were little known in the West until late in the 19th century, but today the United States supplies half of the world production, with China in fourth place after Brazil and Argentina. However, most U.S. soybeans feed not people but livestock, and much of the rest are processed to make cooking oil and a host of industrial materials.

The soybean's many guises have been inspired by both its great virtues and its defects. Soybeans are exceptionally nutritious, with double the protein content of other legumes, a near-ideal balance of amino acids, a rich endowment of oil, and a number of minor const.i.tuents that may contribute to our long-term health (p. 485). At the same time, they're pretty unappealing. They contain abundant antinutritional factors and gas-producing oligosaccharides and fiber. When boiled in the usual way, they develop a strong "beany" flavor. And when cooked whole as other beans are, they don't become appealingly creamy; since they contain a negligible amount of starch, their texture remains somewhat firm. The Chinese and others developed two basic ways of making soybeans more palatable: extracting their protein and oil in the form of a milk and then concentrating them in cheese-like curds; and encouraging the growth of microbes that consume undesirable substances and generate an appealing flavor. The results were bean curd and soymilk skins; and soy sauce and miso, tempeh and natto.

Fresh Soybeans One other way to make soybeans more palatable is to eat them before they're fully mature, when they're sweeter, contain lower levels of ga.s.sy and antinutritional substances, and have a less p.r.o.nounced beany flavor. Fresh soybeans, j.a.panese One other way to make soybeans more palatable is to eat them before they're fully mature, when they're sweeter, contain lower levels of ga.s.sy and antinutritional substances, and have a less p.r.o.nounced beany flavor. Fresh soybeans, j.a.panese edamame edamame or Chinese or Chinese mao dou, mao dou, are specialized varieties harvested at 80% maturity, still sweet and crisp and green, then boiled for a few minutes in salted water. Green soybeans are around 15% protein and 10% oil. are specialized varieties harvested at 80% maturity, still sweet and crisp and green, then boiled for a few minutes in salted water. Green soybeans are around 15% protein and 10% oil.

Soybean Milk The traditional method for making soymilk is to soak the beans until soft, grind them, and either sieve out the solids and cook the milk (China) or cook the slurry and then sieve out the solids (j.a.pan). The result is a watery fluid filled with soy proteins and microscopic droplets of soy oil. Either method results in a strong soy flavor. The modern method that minimizes enzyme action and soy flavor is to soak the dry beans (an hour at 150F/65C allows them to absorb their full weight in water without significant cell damage), and then either quickly cook them to 180212F/80100C before grinding, or grind them in that temperature range in a preheated grinder and preheated water. The traditional method for making soymilk is to soak the beans until soft, grind them, and either sieve out the solids and cook the milk (China) or cook the slurry and then sieve out the solids (j.a.pan). The result is a watery fluid filled with soy proteins and microscopic droplets of soy oil. Either method results in a strong soy flavor. The modern method that minimizes enzyme action and soy flavor is to soak the dry beans (an hour at 150F/65C allows them to absorb their full weight in water without significant cell damage), and then either quickly cook them to 180212F/80100C before grinding, or grind them in that temperature range in a preheated grinder and preheated water.

In the West, soymilk has become a popular alternative to cow's milk, with a roughly similar protein and fat content, but the fat less saturated (soy milk must be fortified with calcium in order to be a good nutritional subst.i.tute). But it is dilute, textureless, bland, and not very versatile. The Chinese found two ways to make it more interesting (and to remove the gas-causing oligosaccharides): coagulate the milk into surface skins, or coagulate it into curd.

Soymilk Skin When animal or seed milks are heated in an uncovered pot, a skin of coagulated protein forms on the surface. The skin forms because proteins unfolded by the heat concentrate at the surface, get tangled up with each other, and then lose their moisture to the dry room air. As they dry, they get even more tightly tangled, and form a thin but solid protein sheet, entrapping oil droplets and developing a fibrous, chewy texture. When animal or seed milks are heated in an uncovered pot, a skin of coagulated protein forms on the surface. The skin forms because proteins unfolded by the heat concentrate at the surface, get tangled up with each other, and then lose their moisture to the dry room air. As they dry, they get even more tightly tangled, and form a thin but solid protein sheet, entrapping oil droplets and developing a fibrous, chewy texture.

The Beany Flavor of SoybeansThe strong aroma of simply cooked soybeans results from two qualities: their high content of polyunsaturated oil, which is especially vulnerable to oxidation, and their highly active oil-breaking enzymes. When the cells of the bean are damaged and their contents mixed together, the enzymes and oxygen break the long carbon chains of the oil into fragments five, six, and eight carbon atoms long. These fragments have aromas reminiscent of gra.s.s, paint, cardboard, and rancid fat, and the combination creates a smell usually described as "beany." Some bitter taste and astringency also develop, probably due to free fatty acids or to soy isoflavones that are liberated from their storage form (p. 485).The key to minimizing the development of beany flavor is to inactivate the beans' enzymes quickly, before they have a chance to attack the oils. This is done by soaking the beans to speed subsequent cooking, and then immersing them in boiling water or pressure-cooking them.

Such skins are usually an annoyance, but some cultures make a virtue of them and turn them into a dish. The Indians do this with cow's milk, and for several centuries the Chinese have been using soymilk to make dou fu pi, dou fu pi, the j.a.panese the j.a.panese yuba, yuba, which they layer together to form a variety of sweet and savory products, some of them shaped into flowers, fish, birds, even pigs' heads. The skins are also meltingly delicious when eaten just as they're taken from the milk. At some j.a.panese restaurants, a small pot of soy milk is heated at the table so diners can remove and eat the skins as they form, then add a pinch of salts to the remaining liquid and coagulate it into soft tofu. which they layer together to form a variety of sweet and savory products, some of them shaped into flowers, fish, birds, even pigs' heads. The skins are also meltingly delicious when eaten just as they're taken from the milk. At some j.a.panese restaurants, a small pot of soy milk is heated at the table so diners can remove and eat the skins as they form, then add a pinch of salts to the remaining liquid and coagulate it into soft tofu.

Bean Curd, or Tofu Bean curd is curdled soy milk, a concentrated ma.s.s of protein and oil formed by coagulating the dissolved proteins with salts that yoke them and the protein-coated oil droplets together. Bean curd was invented in China around 2,000 years ago, was well known by 500 Bean curd is curdled soy milk, a concentrated ma.s.s of protein and oil formed by coagulating the dissolved proteins with salts that yoke them and the protein-coated oil droplets together. Bean curd was invented in China around 2,000 years ago, was well known by 500 CE CE, and became a daily food beginning around 1300. Chinese bean curd is traditionally coagulated with calcium sulfate, j.a.panese bean curd and bean curd from coastal regions of China with what the j.a.panese call nigari, nigari, a mixture of magnesium and calcium salts left over when table salt, sodium chloride, is crystallized from seawater. a mixture of magnesium and calcium salts left over when table salt, sodium chloride, is crystallized from seawater.

Making Bean Curd To make bean curd, cooked soy milk is cooled to about 175F/78C, then coagulated with calcium or magnesium salts dissolved in a small amount of water. The coagulation takes 830 minutes. When the delicate, cloud-like curds have formed, the remaining "whey" is ladled off, or the curd is broken up to release water and drained. The resulting ma.s.s is then pressed for 1525 minutes while still quite hot, around 160F/70C, in order to form a cohesive ma.s.s that's around 85% water, 8% protein, and 4% oil. In commercial production, the curd is cut into blocks, packaged in water, and the packages pasteurized by immersion in hot water. To make bean curd, cooked soy milk is cooled to about 175F/78C, then coagulated with calcium or magnesium salts dissolved in a small amount of water. The coagulation takes 830 minutes. When the delicate, cloud-like curds have formed, the remaining "whey" is ladled off, or the curd is broken up to release water and drained. The resulting ma.s.s is then pressed for 1525 minutes while still quite hot, around 160F/70C, in order to form a cohesive ma.s.s that's around 85% water, 8% protein, and 4% oil. In commercial production, the curd is cut into blocks, packaged in water, and the packages pasteurized by immersion in hot water.

Soft or silken tofu, with a custard-like texture, is made by coagulating the soymilk in the package so that the curd remains intact, full of moisture, and delicate.

Freezing Bean Curd Tofu is one of the few foods that can be usefully altered by freezing. When it freezes, the coagulated proteins become even more concentrated, and the solid ice crystals form pockets in the protein network. When the frozen curd thaws, the liquid water flows from the toughened spongy network, especially when the curd is pressed. The sponge is then ready to absorb flavorful cooking liquids, and has a chewier, meatier texture. Tofu is one of the few foods that can be usefully altered by freezing. When it freezes, the coagulated proteins become even more concentrated, and the solid ice crystals form pockets in the protein network. When the frozen curd thaws, the liquid water flows from the toughened spongy network, especially when the curd is pressed. The sponge is then ready to absorb flavorful cooking liquids, and has a chewier, meatier texture.

An Early Description of TofuOne of the earliest European accounts of soybean curd is Friar Domingo Navarrete's, which dates from the 17th century. He called itthe most usual, common, and cheap sort of food all China abounds in, and which all in that empire eat, from the Emperor to the meanest Chinese; the Emperor and great men as a dainty, the common sort as necessary sustenance. It is called Teu Fu, that is paste of kidney beans. I did not see how they made it. They drew the milk out of the kidney beans, and turning it, make great cakes of it like cheeses, as big as a large sieve, and five or six fingers thick. All the ma.s.s is as white as the very snow, to look to nothing can be finer...Alone it is insipid, but very good dressed as I say and excellent fried in b.u.t.ter.

Fermented Bean Curd Sufu Sufu ( (tou fu ru, fu ru) is soybean curd fermented by molds in the genera Actinomucor Actinomucor and and Mucor, Mucor, producing the Chinese and vegetarian equivalent of mold-ripened milk cheeses. producing the Chinese and vegetarian equivalent of mold-ripened milk cheeses.

Fermented Soybean Products: Soy Sauce, Miso, Tempeh, Natto The great appeal of miso and soy sauce, long-fermented soy products, is their strong, distinctive, and delicious flavor. It develops when microbes break down the bean proteins and other components and transform them into savory substances that then react with each other to generate additional layers of flavor. Tempeh and natto are quick-fermented soy products with their own unusual qualities. The great appeal of miso and soy sauce, long-fermented soy products, is their strong, distinctive, and delicious flavor. It develops when microbes break down the bean proteins and other components and transform them into savory substances that then react with each other to generate additional layers of flavor. Tempeh and natto are quick-fermented soy products with their own unusual qualities.

Two-Stage Fermentations Asian mold fermentations generally involve two distinct stages. In the first, dormant green spores of Asian mold fermentations generally involve two distinct stages. In the first, dormant green spores of Aspergillus Aspergillus molds are mixed with cooked grains or soybeans, which are then kept warm, moist, and well aerated. The spores germinate and develop into a ma.s.s of thread-like hyphae, which produce digestive enzymes that break down the food for energy and building blocks. The second stage begins after about two days, when the enzymes are at their peak. The mixture of food and hyphae, called molds are mixed with cooked grains or soybeans, which are then kept warm, moist, and well aerated. The spores germinate and develop into a ma.s.s of thread-like hyphae, which produce digestive enzymes that break down the food for energy and building blocks. The second stage begins after about two days, when the enzymes are at their peak. The mixture of food and hyphae, called chhu chhu in China and in China and koji koji in j.a.pan, is now immersed in a salt brine, often along with more cooked soybeans. In the oxygen-poor brine, the molds die, but their enzymes continue to work. At the same time, microbes that thrive in the absence of oxygen - salt-tolerant lactic acid bacteria and yeasts - grow in the brine, consume some of the building blocks, and contribute their own flavorful by-products to the mixture. in j.a.pan, is now immersed in a salt brine, often along with more cooked soybeans. In the oxygen-poor brine, the molds die, but their enzymes continue to work. At the same time, microbes that thrive in the absence of oxygen - salt-tolerant lactic acid bacteria and yeasts - grow in the brine, consume some of the building blocks, and contribute their own flavorful by-products to the mixture.

The Origins of Miso and Soy Sauce The first foods that the ancient Chinese fermented in brine were pieces of meat or fish. These were eventually replaced by whole soybeans around the 2nd century The first foods that the ancient Chinese fermented in brine were pieces of meat or fish. These were eventually replaced by whole soybeans around the 2nd century BCE BCE. Soy paste became the major condiment around 200 CE CE and remained so through around 1600, when it was replaced by soy sauce. Soy sauce began as a residue resulting when soy paste was made with excess liquid, but it became more popular than the paste, and by 1000 was prepared for its own sake. and remained so through around 1600, when it was replaced by soy sauce. Soy sauce began as a residue resulting when soy paste was made with excess liquid, but it became more popular than the paste, and by 1000 was prepared for its own sake.

Chinese Soy Pastes and SaucesA number of the condiments used in Chinese cooking as sauces or sauce bases are variations on mold-fermented soybeans, or chiang. chiang. Their Chinese names reflect this. Some examples are: Their Chinese names reflect this. Some examples are: Bean sauce, yuen-s.h.i.+ chiang, yuen-s.h.i.+ chiang, made from the residue of soy-sauce making, used to make savory sauces made from the residue of soy-sauce making, used to make savory sauces Bean paste, to-pan chiang, to-pan chiang, essentially a chunky wheat-barley-soy miso, used to make savory sauces essentially a chunky wheat-barley-soy miso, used to make savory sauces Hoisin sauce, ha-hsien chiang, ha-hsien chiang, made from the residue of soy-sauce making, mixed with wheat flour, sugar, vinegar, chilli pepper; served with Peking duck and mu shu pork made from the residue of soy-sauce making, mixed with wheat flour, sugar, vinegar, chilli pepper; served with Peking duck and mu shu pork Sweet wheat chiang, t'inmin chiang, t'inmin chiang, smooth, soft, brown; made from wheat flour formed into steamed buns or flat sheets, allowed to mold, then brined; used as the base for Peking duck dipping sauce smooth, soft, brown; made from wheat flour formed into steamed buns or flat sheets, allowed to mold, then brined; used as the base for Peking duck dipping sauce Fermented soy pastes and soy sauce were carried by Buddhist monks to j.a.pan, where sometime around 700 CE CE a new j.a.panese name, a new j.a.panese name, miso miso - - mi mi meaning flavor - was given to distinctive j.a.panese versions of the paste. These involved the use of a grain-based koji that provided sweetness, alcohol, finer aromatics, and delicacy. Until the 15th century, j.a.panese soy sauce was simply the excess fluid, or tamari, ladled from finished soybean miso. By the 17th century, the now-standard formula of roasted cracked wheat and soybeans had been established for making the sauce, and the resulting product given a new name, shoyu. Shoyu began to appear on western tables as an exotic and expensive item by the 17th century. meaning flavor - was given to distinctive j.a.panese versions of the paste. These involved the use of a grain-based koji that provided sweetness, alcohol, finer aromatics, and delicacy. Until the 15th century, j.a.panese soy sauce was simply the excess fluid, or tamari, ladled from finished soybean miso. By the 17th century, the now-standard formula of roasted cracked wheat and soybeans had been established for making the sauce, and the resulting product given a new name, shoyu. Shoyu began to appear on western tables as an exotic and expensive item by the 17th century.

Miso Miso is used as a soup base, as a seasoning for various dishes, in marinades, and as a medium for pickling vegetables. There are dozens of different varieties. Miso is used as a soup base, as a seasoning for various dishes, in marinades, and as a medium for pickling vegetables. There are dozens of different varieties.

Miso is made by cooking a grain or legume - usually rice, sometimes barley, sometimes soybean - and fermenting it in shallow trays with koji starter for several days to develop enzymes. The resulting koji is then mixed with ground cooked soybeans, salt (515%), and a dose of an earlier batch of miso (to provide bacteria and yeasts). In traditional miso making, the mixture is allowed to ferment (and eventually age) in barrels for months to years at a warm 86100F/3038C. Various lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacilli, Pediococci) and salt-tolerant yeasts (Zygosaccharomyces, Torulopsis) break down the seed proteins, carbohydrates, and oils and produce a host of flavor molecules and flavor precursors. Browning reactions generate deeper layers of flavor and color.

Traditionally made miso ends up with a rich, savory, complex flavor dominated by sweet and roasted notes, and sometimes by esters reminiscent of pineapple and other fruits. Modern industrial production cuts the fermentation and aging from months to a few weeks, and compensates for the resulting lack of flavor and color with various additives.

Soy Sauce Soy sauce is made in several different styles today. Broadly speaking, the flavor of traditional soy sauce depends on the proportions of soybeans and wheat. Most Chinese soy sauces, and j.a.panese tamari, are made primarily or exclusively from soybeans. j.a.panese soy sauce is generally made from an even mixture of soybeans and wheat, and the starch from the wheat gives it a characteristic sweetness, a higher alcohol content, and more alcohol-derived aromatics. Soy sauce is made in several different styles today. Broadly speaking, the flavor of traditional soy sauce depends on the proportions of soybeans and wheat. Most Chinese soy sauces, and j.a.panese tamari, are made primarily or exclusively from soybeans. j.a.panese soy sauce is generally made from an even mixture of soybeans and wheat, and the starch from the wheat gives it a characteristic sweetness, a higher alcohol content, and more alcohol-derived aromatics. s.h.i.+ro, s.h.i.+ro, or "white" soy sauce, lighter in color and flavor, is made with more wheat than soybeans. or "white" soy sauce, lighter in color and flavor, is made with more wheat than soybeans.

The Delightful Physics of Miso SoupMiso soup is one of the most common j.a.panese dishes. It typically includes a das.h.i.+ broth (p. 238) and small cubes of tofu. As is true of many j.a.panese preparations, miso soup is a delight to the eye as well as the palate. When the soup is made and poured into the bowl, the miso particles disperse throughout in an even haze. But left undisturbed for a few minutes, the particles gather around the center of the bowl in discrete little clouds that slowly change shape. The clouds mark convection cells, columns in the broth where hot liquid from the bowl bottom rises, is made cooler and so more dense by evaporation at the surface, falls again; is reheated and becomes less dense, rises, and so on. Miso soup enacts at the table the same process that produces towering thunderhead clouds in the summer sky.

Making j.a.panese Soy Sauce j.a.panese Soy Sauce Most of the soy sauce sold in the West is made in j.a.pan or in the j.a.panese style, which is summarized in the box on p. 498. During the initial brief fermentation, the Most of the soy sauce sold in the West is made in j.a.pan or in the j.a.panese style, which is summarized in the box on p. 498. During the initial brief fermentation, the Aspergillus Aspergillus mold produces enzymes that will break down wheat starch into sugars, wheat and soy proteins into amino acids, and seed oils into fatty acids. Then during the longer main fermentation, these enzymes do their work; yeasts produce alcohol and a range of taste and aroma compounds; and bacteria produce lactic, acetic, and other acids, and yet other aromas. Over time, the various enzymes and microbial products also react with each other, the sugars and amino acids forming roasty-smelling pyrazines, acids and alcohols combining to form fruity esters. The high-temperature pasteurization develops yet another layer of flavor by encouraging browning reactions between amino acids and sugars. The result is a liquid that's salty, tart, sweet, savory (from a high concentration of amino acids, mainly glutamic acid), with a rich aroma. Several hundred aroma molecules have been identified in soy sauce, with roasty compounds (furanones and pyrazines), sweet maltol, and a number of meaty sulfur compounds among the more prominent. All in all, soy sauce is a concentrated, mouth-filling liquid, a versatile flavor enhancer for other foods. mold produces enzymes that will break down wheat starch into sugars, wheat and soy proteins into amino acids, and seed oils into fatty acids. Then during the longer main fermentation, these enzymes do their work; yeasts produce alcohol and a range of taste and aroma compounds; and bacteria produce lactic, acetic, and other acids, and yet other aromas. Over time, the various enzymes and microbial products also react with each other, the sugars and amino acids forming roasty-smelling pyrazines, acids and alcohols combining to form fruity esters. The high-temperature pasteurization develops yet another layer of flavor by encouraging browning reactions between amino acids and sugars. The result is a liquid that's salty, tart, sweet, savory (from a high concentration of amino acids, mainly glutamic acid), with a rich aroma. Several hundred aroma molecules have been identified in soy sauce, with roasty compounds (furanones and pyrazines), sweet maltol, and a number of meaty sulfur compounds among the more prominent. All in all, soy sauce is a concentrated, mouth-filling liquid, a versatile flavor enhancer for other foods.

Tamari Tamari Tamari names a kind of j.a.panese soy sauce closest to its Chinese original: made with little or no wheat, and therefore poor in alcohol and fruity esters derived from it, but with a darker color and richer flavor thanks to the higher concentration of soybean amino acids. Today tamari is sometimes stabilized with added alcohol, which makes its aroma closer to that of ordinary shoyu. Even stronger than true tamari is twice-fermented names a kind of j.a.panese soy sauce closest to its Chinese original: made with little or no wheat, and therefore poor in alcohol and fruity esters derived from it, but with a darker color and richer flavor thanks to the higher concentration of soybean amino acids. Today tamari is sometimes stabilized with added alcohol, which makes its aroma closer to that of ordinary shoyu. Even stronger than true tamari is twice-fermented sais.h.i.+komi, sais.h.i.+komi, made by making up the mash not with salt water, but with a previous batch of soy sauce. made by making up the mash not with salt water, but with a previous batch of soy sauce.

"Chemical" Soy Sauce Industrial producers have been making nonfermented approximations of soy sauce since the 1920s, when the j.a.panese first used chemically modified soy protein ("hydrolyzed vegetable protein") as an ingredient. Nowadays, defatted soy meal, the residue of soybean oil production, is broken down - hydrolyzed - into amino acids and sugars with concentrated hydrochloric acid. This caustic mixture is then neutralized with alkaline sodium carbonate, and flavored and colored with corn syrup, caramel, water, and salt. Such quick "chemical" soy sauce has a very different character from the slow fermented version, and is usually blended with at least some genuine fermented soy sauce to make it palatable. Industrial producers have been making nonfermented approximations of soy sauce since the 1920s, when the j.a.panese first used chemically modified soy protein ("hydrolyzed vegetable protein") as an ingredient. Nowadays, defatted soy meal, the residue of soybean oil production, is broken down - hydrolyzed - into amino acids and sugars with concentrated hydrochloric acid. This caustic mixture is then neutralized with alkaline sodium carbonate, and flavored and colored with corn syrup, caramel, water, and salt. Such quick "chemical" soy sauce has a very different character from the slow fermented version, and is usually blended with at least some genuine fermented soy sauce to make it palatable.

The Original KetchupFermented soy pastes and sauces developed into many different regional variations in Asia. Among them is the Indonesian condiment kecap, kecap, whose name gave us our term for a sweet-sour tomato condiment. whose name gave us our term for a sweet-sour tomato condiment. Kecap Kecap is made by allowing is made by allowing Aspergillus Aspergillus mold to grow on cooked soybeans for about a week, brine-fermenting the moldy ma.s.s for 2 to 20 weeks, then boiling it for 4 to 5 hours, and filtering off the solids. The salty version is called mold to grow on cooked soybeans for about a week, brine-fermenting the moldy ma.s.s for 2 to 20 weeks, then boiling it for 4 to 5 hours, and filtering off the solids. The salty version is called kecap asin. kecap asin. To make sweet To make sweet kecap manis, kecap manis, palm sugar and a variety of spices - among them galangal, makrut lime, fennel, coriander, and garlic - are added to the fermented beans just before the boiling. palm sugar and a variety of spices - among them galangal, makrut lime, fennel, coriander, and garlic - are added to the fermented beans just before the boiling.

OPPOSITE: Making soy sauce. The more involved and time-consuming fermentation produces a much more flavorful result than the quick chemical production method. Making soy sauce. The more involved and time-consuming fermentation produces a much more flavorful result than the quick chemical production method.

To make sure you're buying genuine soy sauce, read the label carefully, and avoid products that include added flavorings and colors.

Tempeh Tempeh was invented in Indonesia, and unlike miso and soy sauce is not a salty preserved condiment but an unsalted, quick-fermented, perishable main ingredient. It's made by cooking whole soybeans, forming them into thin layers, and fermenting with a mold, Tempeh was invented in Indonesia, and unlike miso and soy sauce is not a salty preserved condiment but an unsalted, quick-fermented, perishable main ingredient. It's made by cooking whole soybeans, forming them into thin layers, and fermenting with a mold, Rhizopus oligosporus Rhizopus oligosporus or or R. oryzae, R. oryzae, for 24 hours at a warm, tropical temperature (8590F/3033C). The mold grows and produces thread-like hyphae, which penetrate the beans and bind them together, and digest significant amounts of protein and oil to flavorful fragments. Fresh tempeh has a yeasty, mushroomy aroma; when sliced and fried, it develops a nutty, almost meaty flavor. for 24 hours at a warm, tropical temperature (8590F/3033C). The mold grows and produces thread-like hyphae, which penetrate the beans and bind them together, and digest significant amounts of protein and oil to flavorful fragments. Fresh tempeh has a yeasty, mushroomy aroma; when sliced and fried, it develops a nutty, almost meaty flavor.

Natto Natto has been made in j.a.pan for at least 1,000 years, and is notable for being distinctly alkaline (from the breakdown of amino acids into ammonia) and for developing a sticky, slippery slime that can be drawn with the tip of a chopstick into threads up to 3 ft/1 m long! As with tempeh, no salt is used and the product is perishable. The whole beans are cooked, inoculated with a culture of the bacterium Bacillus subtilis natto, Bacillus subtilis natto, and held at about 100F/40C for 20 hours. Some bacterial enzymes break down proteins into amino acids and oligosaccharides into simple sugars, while others produce a range of aroma compounds (b.u.t.tery diacetyl, various volatile acids, nutty pyrazines), as well as long chains of glutamic acid and long branched chains of sucrose, which form the slimy strings. Natto is served atop rice or noodles, in salads and soups, or cooked with vegetables. and held at about 100F/40C for 20 hours. Some bacterial enzymes break down proteins into amino acids and oligosaccharides into simple sugars, while others produce a range of aroma compounds (b.u.t.tery diacetyl, various volatile acids, nutty pyrazines), as well as long chains of glutamic acid and long branched chains of sucrose, which form the slimy strings. Natto is served atop rice or noodles, in salads and soups, or cooked with vegetables.

Some Traditional Fermented Soybean Preparations Nuts and Other Oil-Rich Seeds From the first, the English word nut nut meant an edible seed surrounded by a hard sh.e.l.l, and this remains the common meaning. Botanists later appropriated the word to refer specifically to one-seeded fruits with a tough, dry fruit layer rather then a fleshy, succulent one. Under this restricted definition, among common nuts only acorns, hazelnuts, beechnuts, and chestnuts qualify as true nuts. The details of anatomy aside, the various seeds that we call nuts differ from grains and legumes in three important ways: they're generally larger, richer in oil, and require little or no cooking to be edible and nouris.h.i.+ng. This combination of qualities made nuts an important source of nourishment in prehistoric times. Today, they're especially appreciated for their characteristic rich flavor. meant an edible seed surrounded by a hard sh.e.l.l, and this remains the common meaning. Botanists later appropriated the word to refer specifically to one-seeded fruits with a tough, dry fruit layer rather then a fleshy, succulent one. Under this restricted definition, among common nuts only acorns, hazelnuts, beechnuts, and chestnuts qualify as true nuts. The details of anatomy aside, the various seeds that we call nuts differ from grains and legumes in three important ways: they're generally larger, richer in oil, and require little or no cooking to be edible and nouris.h.i.+ng. This combination of qualities made nuts an important source of nourishment in prehistoric times. Today, they're especially appreciated for their characteristic rich flavor.

Walnuts, hazelnuts, chestnuts, and pine nuts all have both Old World and New World species, because nut-bearing trees have been around a lot longer than the other food plants, long enough that they existed before North America and Europe split apart some 60 million years ago. Over the last few centuries, humans have spread their prized nut species to nearly every region on the globe with a suitable climate. California has become the largest producer of southwest Asian almonds and walnuts, South American peanuts are grown throughout the subtropics, and Asian coconuts throughout the tropics.

Nut Structures and Qualities The bulk of most nuts consists of the embryo's swollen storage leaves, or cotyledons, but coconuts and pine nuts are monolithic ma.s.ses of endosperm, and the Brazil nut is a swollen embryonic stem. Unlike most grains and legumes, nuts are delicious when eaten in their dry, nutrient-concentrated state, somewhat crisped and browned by a quick roasting. Their weak cell walls make them tender, their low starch content prevents them from seeming floury, and their oil gives them a mouth-watering moistness.

An important feature of the nuts is the skin, a protective layer of varying thickness that adheres to the kernel. Chestnut skins are thick and tough, hazelnut skins papery and brittle. The nut skin is usually reddish-brown in color and astringent to the taste. Both qualities are due to the presence of tannins and other phenolic compounds, which may make up a quarter of the skin's dry weight. Many of these same phenolic compounds are effective antioxidants and so nutritionally valuable. But because they're astringent and discolor other ingredients (walnut skins turn breads purple-gray), cooks often remove the skins from nuts.

The chestnut, with its sh.e.l.l and tough, adherent seed coat.

The Nutritional Value of Nuts Nuts are very nutritious. After pure fats and oils, they're the richest foods that we eat, averaging around 600 calories (kcal) per quarter-pound/100 gm; by comparison, fatty beef averages 200 calories, and dry starchy grains 350. Nuts can be 50% or more oil, 1025% protein, and are a good source of several vitamins and minerals and of fiber. Notable among the vitamins is the antioxidant vitamin E, especially concentrated in hazelnuts and almonds, and folic acid, which is thought to be important for cardiovascular health. Most nut oils are made up primarily of monounsaturated fatty acids, and have more polyunsaturates than saturated fats (exceptions are coconuts with a large dose of saturated fat, and walnuts and pecans, which are predominantly polyun-saturated). And nut seed coats are rich in antioxidant phenolic compounds. This cl.u.s.ter of characteristics - a favorable balance of fats, copious antioxidants, and folic acid - may explain why epidemiological surveys have found nut consumption to be a.s.sociated with a reduced risk of heart disease.

Compositions of Common Nuts and SeedsThe following table gives the major components of nuts and seeds by percentage of the seed's edible weight. Chestnuts and coconut meat are generally sold fresh and so have a relatively high water content.

Nut or Seed Water Water Protein Protein Oil Oil Carbohydrates Carbohydrates

Almond 5 5.

19 19.

54 54.

20 20.

Brazil 5 5.

14 14.

67 67.

11 11.

Cashew 5 5.

17 17.

46 46.

29 29.

Chestnut 52 52.

3 3.

2 2.

42 42.

Coconut (meat) 51 51.

4 4.

35 35.

9 9.

Flaxseed 9 9.

20 20.

34 34.

36 36.

Hazelnut 6 6.

13 13.

62 62.

17 17.

Macadamia 3 3.