The Disappearing Spoon Part 9

"a siderophile, or iron-loving element": The siderophiles osmium and rhenium have also helped scientists reconstruct how the moon was formed from a cataclysmic impact between the very early earth and an asteroid or comet. The moon coalesced from the debris that was thrown up. The siderophiles osmium and rhenium have also helped scientists reconstruct how the moon was formed from a cataclysmic impact between the very early earth and an asteroid or comet. The moon coalesced from the debris that was thrown up.

"later dubbed Nemesis": The G.o.ddess Nemesis punished hubris. She made sure no earthly creature could ever grow too proud by striking down anyone who threatened to grow more powerful than the G.o.ds. The a.n.a.logy to the sun's companion star was that if earthly creatures (say, dinosaurs) evolved toward true intelligence, Nemesis would wipe them out before they got traction. The G.o.ddess Nemesis punished hubris. She made sure no earthly creature could ever grow too proud by striking down anyone who threatened to grow more powerful than the G.o.ds. The a.n.a.logy to the sun's companion star was that if earthly creatures (say, dinosaurs) evolved toward true intelligence, Nemesis would wipe them out before they got traction.

"like a carousel as it drifts": Ironically, the overall motion of the sun, if viewed from afar, would resemble the old wheels-within-wheels cycles and epicycles that ancient astronomers bent backward trying to explain in their pre-Copernican, earth-centered cosmos (it's just that earth cannot be called the center anymore, not by a long shot). Like Miescher and proteins, this is an example of the cyclical nature of all ideas, even in science. Ironically, the overall motion of the sun, if viewed from afar, would resemble the old wheels-within-wheels cycles and epicycles that ancient astronomers bent backward trying to explain in their pre-Copernican, earth-centered cosmos (it's just that earth cannot be called the center anymore, not by a long shot). Like Miescher and proteins, this is an example of the cyclical nature of all ideas, even in science.

5. Elements in Times of War.

"went on to win the war": For more details on the history of chemical warfare, especially the experience of American troops, see "Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American Experience, 19171918," by Major Charles E. h.e.l.ler, part of the For more details on the history of chemical warfare, especially the experience of American troops, see "Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American Experience, 19171918," by Major Charles E. h.e.l.ler, part of the Leavenworth Papers Leavenworth Papers published by the Combat Studies Inst.i.tute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, published by the Combat Studies Inst.i.tute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/h.e.l.ler/h.e.l.lER.asp.

"6.7 billion people today": Among the many other things we can attribute to Fritz Haber's ammonia: Charles Townes built the first working maser, the precursor of the laser, by using ammonia as the stimulating agent. Among the many other things we can attribute to Fritz Haber's ammonia: Charles Townes built the first working maser, the precursor of the laser, by using ammonia as the stimulating agent.

6. Completing the Table... with a Bang.

"a full and correct list": Urbain wasn't the only person Moseley embarra.s.sed. Moseley's apparatus also dismantled Masataka Ogawa's claim for discovering nipponium, element forty-three (see Urbain wasn't the only person Moseley embarra.s.sed. Moseley's apparatus also dismantled Masataka Ogawa's claim for discovering nipponium, element forty-three (see chapter 8 chapter 8).

" 'most irreparable crimes in history' ": For accounts of the bungling orders and battles that led to Moseley's death, see For accounts of the bungling orders and battles that led to Moseley's death, see The Making of the Atomic Bomb The Making of the Atomic Bomb by Richard Rhodes. And actually, you should probably just read the whole thing, since it's the best account of twentieth-century science history yet written. by Richard Rhodes. And actually, you should probably just read the whole thing, since it's the best account of twentieth-century science history yet written.

"as 'not good for much' ": The The Time Time magazine article that mentioned the discovery of element sixty-one also included this tidbit about the question of what to name the element: "One convention wag suggested [naming it] grovesium, after loud-mouthed Major General Leslie R. Groves, military chief of the atom bomb project. Chemical symbol: Grr." magazine article that mentioned the discovery of element sixty-one also included this tidbit about the question of what to name the element: "One convention wag suggested [naming it] grovesium, after loud-mouthed Major General Leslie R. Groves, military chief of the atom bomb project. Chemical symbol: Grr."

"Pac-Man style": Besides the electron-gobbling Pac-Man model of the nucleus, scientists at the time also developed the "plum pudding" model, in which electrons were embedded like raisins in a "pudding" of positive charge (Rutherford disproved this by proving that a compact nucleus existed). After the discovery of fission, scientists discovered the liquid drop model, in which large nuclei split like a drop of water on a surface splitting cleanly into two drops. Lise Meitner's work was crucial in developing the liquid drop model. Besides the electron-gobbling Pac-Man model of the nucleus, scientists at the time also developed the "plum pudding" model, in which electrons were embedded like raisins in a "pudding" of positive charge (Rutherford disproved this by proving that a compact nucleus existed). After the discovery of fission, scientists discovered the liquid drop model, in which large nuclei split like a drop of water on a surface splitting cleanly into two drops. Lise Meitner's work was crucial in developing the liquid drop model.

" 'would go thermonuclear' ": The quotes from George Dyson can be found in his book The quotes from George Dyson can be found in his book Project Orion: The True Story of the Atomic s.p.a.ces.h.i.+p Project Orion: The True Story of the Atomic s.p.a.ces.h.i.+p.

" 'methodological map' ": The quote about the Monte Carlo method being a "netherland at once nowhere and everywhere on the usual methodological map" appears in Peter Louis Galison's The quote about the Monte Carlo method being a "netherland at once nowhere and everywhere on the usual methodological map" appears in Peter Louis Galison's Image and Logic Image and Logic.

7. Extending the Table, Expanding the Cold War.

" 'Talk of the Town' section": The The New Yorker New Yorker item appeared in the April 8, 1950, issue and was written by E. J. Kahn Jr. item appeared in the April 8, 1950, issue and was written by E. J. Kahn Jr.

"the alarm one last time": For more details about the experiments that led to elements 94 through 110, and for personal information about the man himself, see Glenn Seaborg's autobiographies, especially For more details about the experiments that led to elements 94 through 110, and for personal information about the man himself, see Glenn Seaborg's autobiographies, especially Adventures in the Atomic Age Adventures in the Atomic Age (cowritten with his son Eric). The book is intrinsically interesting because Seaborg was at the center of so much important science and played such a large role in politics for decades. Honestly, though, Seaborg's cautious writing style makes the book a bit bland at points. (cowritten with his son Eric). The book is intrinsically interesting because Seaborg was at the center of so much important science and played such a large role in politics for decades. Honestly, though, Seaborg's cautious writing style makes the book a bit bland at points.

"poisonous nickel smelters": The information about the lack of trees around Norilsk comes from The information about the lack of trees around Norilsk comes from Time.com, which in 2007 named Norilsk one of the ten most polluted cities in the world. See http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1661031_1661028_1661022,00.html.

"June 2009, copernicium (Cn)": It covers a bit of the same material as here, but a story I wrote for It covers a bit of the same material as here, but a story I wrote for Slate.com in June 2009 ("Periodic Discussions," in June 2009 ("Periodic Discussions," http://www.slate.com/id/2220300/) examines in detail why it took thirteen full years to promote copernicium from provisional element to full member of the periodic table.

8. From Physics to Biology.

"they won forty-two": Besides Segre, Shockley, and Pauling, the other twelve scientists on the cover of Besides Segre, Shockley, and Pauling, the other twelve scientists on the cover of Time Time were George Beadle, Charles Draper, John Enders, Donald Glaser, Joshua Lederberg, Willard Libby, Edward Purcell, Isidor Rabi, Edward Teller, Charles Townes, James Van Allen, and Robert Woodward. were George Beadle, Charles Draper, John Enders, Donald Glaser, Joshua Lederberg, Willard Libby, Edward Purcell, Isidor Rabi, Edward Teller, Charles Townes, James Van Allen, and Robert Woodward.

The Time Time "Men of the Year" article contained the following words by Shockley on race. He meant them as complimentary, obviously, but his view on Bunche had to have sounded weird even at the time, and in retrospect it's creepy. "William Shockley, 50, is that rare breed of scientist, a theorist who makes no apology for a consuming interest in the practical applications of his work. 'Asking how much of a research job is pure and how much applied,' says Shockley, 'is like asking how much Negro and white blood Ralph Bunche might have. What's important is that Ralph Bunche is a great man.' " "Men of the Year" article contained the following words by Shockley on race. He meant them as complimentary, obviously, but his view on Bunche had to have sounded weird even at the time, and in retrospect it's creepy. "William Shockley, 50, is that rare breed of scientist, a theorist who makes no apology for a consuming interest in the practical applications of his work. 'Asking how much of a research job is pure and how much applied,' says Shockley, 'is like asking how much Negro and white blood Ralph Bunche might have. What's important is that Ralph Bunche is a great man.' "

The article also shows that the legend about Shockley as the main inventor of the transistor was already firmly established: Hired by Bell Telephone Laboratories right after he graduated from M.I.T. in 1936, theoretical physicist Shockley was one of a team that found a use for what had previously been a scientific parlor stunt: the use of silicon and germanium as a photoelectric device. Along with his partners, Shockley won a n.o.bel Prize for turning hunks of germanium into the first transistors, the educated little crystals that are fast replacing vacuum tubes in the country's booming electronics industry.

"of all the d.a.m.ned luck, Ida Noddack": Overall, Ida Noddack had a spotty run as a chemist. She helped find element seventy-five, but her group's work with element forty-three was riddled with mistakes. She predicted nuclear fission years before anyone else, but about that same time, she began arguing that the periodic table was a useless relic, because the multiplication of new isotopes was rendering it unwieldy. It's not clear why Noddack believed that each isotope was its own element, but she did, and she tried to convince others that they should sc.r.a.p the periodic system. Overall, Ida Noddack had a spotty run as a chemist. She helped find element seventy-five, but her group's work with element forty-three was riddled with mistakes. She predicted nuclear fission years before anyone else, but about that same time, she began arguing that the periodic table was a useless relic, because the multiplication of new isotopes was rendering it unwieldy. It's not clear why Noddack believed that each isotope was its own element, but she did, and she tried to convince others that they should sc.r.a.p the periodic system.

" 'The reason for our blindness is not clear' ": The quote from Segre about Noddack and fission comes from his biography The quote from Segre about Noddack and fission comes from his biography Enrico Fermi: Physicist Enrico Fermi: Physicist.

"a malfunctioning molecule": Pauling (with colleagues Harvey Itano, S. Jonathan Singer, and Ibert Wells) determined that defective hemoglobin causes sickle-cell anemia by running defective cells through a gel in an electric field. Cells with healthy hemoglobin traveled one way in the electric field, while sickle cells moved in the opposite direction. This meant that the two types of molecules had opposite electric charges, a difference that could arise only on a molecular, atom-by-atom level. Pauling (with colleagues Harvey Itano, S. Jonathan Singer, and Ibert Wells) determined that defective hemoglobin causes sickle-cell anemia by running defective cells through a gel in an electric field. Cells with healthy hemoglobin traveled one way in the electric field, while sickle cells moved in the opposite direction. This meant that the two types of molecules had opposite electric charges, a difference that could arise only on a molecular, atom-by-atom level.

Funnily enough, Francis Crick later cited the paper in which Pauling laid out his theory about the molecular basis of sickle-cell anemia as a major influence on him, since it was exactly the sort of nitty-gritty molecular biology that interested Crick.

"a molecular appendix": Interestingly, biologists are slowly coming back around to their original view from Miescher's day that proteins are the be-all and end-all of genetic biology. Genes occupied scientists for decades, and they'll never really go away. But scientists now realize that genes cannot account for the amazing complexity of living beings and that far more is going on. Genomics was important fundamental work, but proteomics is where there's real money to be made. Interestingly, biologists are slowly coming back around to their original view from Miescher's day that proteins are the be-all and end-all of genetic biology. Genes occupied scientists for decades, and they'll never really go away. But scientists now realize that genes cannot account for the amazing complexity of living beings and that far more is going on. Genomics was important fundamental work, but proteomics is where there's real money to be made.

"DNA was": To be scrupulous, the 1952 virus experiments with sulfur and phosphorus, conducted by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, were not the first to prove that DNA carries genetic information. That honor goes to work with bacteria done by Oswald Avery, published in 1944. Although Avery illuminated the true role of DNA, his work was not widely believed at first. People were beginning to accept it by 1952, but only after the Hershey-Chase experiments did people such as Linus Pauling really get involved in DNA work. To be scrupulous, the 1952 virus experiments with sulfur and phosphorus, conducted by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, were not the first to prove that DNA carries genetic information. That honor goes to work with bacteria done by Oswald Avery, published in 1944. Although Avery illuminated the true role of DNA, his work was not widely believed at first. People were beginning to accept it by 1952, but only after the Hershey-Chase experiments did people such as Linus Pauling really get involved in DNA work.

People often cite Avery-and Rosalind Franklin, who unwittingly told Watson and Crick that DNA was a double helix-as prime examples of people who got locked out of n.o.bel Prizes. That's not quite accurate. Those two scientists never won, but both had died by 1958, and no one won a n.o.bel Prize for DNA until 1962. Had they still been alive, at least one of them might have shared in the spoils.

"James Watson and Francis Crick": For primary doc.u.ments related to Pauling and his compet.i.tion with Watson and Crick, see the wonderful site set up by Oregon State University, which has archived and posted the contents of hundreds of personal papers and letters by Pauling and also produced a doc.u.mentary history called "Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA" at For primary doc.u.ments related to Pauling and his compet.i.tion with Watson and Crick, see the wonderful site set up by Oregon State University, which has archived and posted the contents of hundreds of personal papers and letters by Pauling and also produced a doc.u.mentary history called "Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA" at http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/dna/index.html.

"before Pauling recovered": After the DNA debacle, Ava Pauling, Linus's wife, famously scolded him. a.s.suming that he would decipher DNA, Pauling had not broken much of a sweat on his calculations at first, and Ava lit into him: "If [DNA] was such an important problem, why didn't you work harder at it?" Even so, Linus loved her deeply, and perhaps one reason he stayed at Cal Tech so long and never transferred his allegiance to Berkeley, even though the latter was a much stronger school at the time, was that one of the more prominent members of the Berkeley faculty, Robert Oppenheimer, later head of the Manhattan Project, had tried to seduce Ava, which made Linus furious. After the DNA debacle, Ava Pauling, Linus's wife, famously scolded him. a.s.suming that he would decipher DNA, Pauling had not broken much of a sweat on his calculations at first, and Ava lit into him: "If [DNA] was such an important problem, why didn't you work harder at it?" Even so, Linus loved her deeply, and perhaps one reason he stayed at Cal Tech so long and never transferred his allegiance to Berkeley, even though the latter was a much stronger school at the time, was that one of the more prominent members of the Berkeley faculty, Robert Oppenheimer, later head of the Manhattan Project, had tried to seduce Ava, which made Linus furious.

"the n.o.bel Prize in Physics": As one last punch in the gut, even Segre's n.o.bel Prize was later tainted by accusations (possibly unfounded) that he stole ideas while designing the experiments to discover the antiproton. Segre and his colleague, Owen Chamberlain, acknowledged working with the combative physicist Oreste Piccioni on methods to focus and guide particle beams with magnets, but they denied that Piccioni's ideas were of much use, and they didn't list him as an author on a crucial paper. Piccioni later helped discover the antineutron. After Segre and Chamberlain won the prize in 1959, Piccioni remained bitter about the slight for years and finally filed a $125,000 lawsuit against them in 1972-which a judge threw out not for lack of scientific standing but because it had been filed more than a decade after the fact. As one last punch in the gut, even Segre's n.o.bel Prize was later tainted by accusations (possibly unfounded) that he stole ideas while designing the experiments to discover the antiproton. Segre and his colleague, Owen Chamberlain, acknowledged working with the combative physicist Oreste Piccioni on methods to focus and guide particle beams with magnets, but they denied that Piccioni's ideas were of much use, and they didn't list him as an author on a crucial paper. Piccioni later helped discover the antineutron. After Segre and Chamberlain won the prize in 1959, Piccioni remained bitter about the slight for years and finally filed a $125,000 lawsuit against them in 1972-which a judge threw out not for lack of scientific standing but because it had been filed more than a decade after the fact.

From the New York Times New York Times obituary of Piccioni on April 27, 2002: " 'He'd break down your front door and tell you he's got the best idea in the world,' said Dr. William A. Wenzel, a senior scientist emeritus at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory who also worked on the antineutron experiment. 'Knowing Oreste, he has a lot of ideas; he throws them out a dozen a minute. Some of them are good, some of them aren't. Nevertheless, I felt he was a good physicist and he contributed to our experiment.' " obituary of Piccioni on April 27, 2002: " 'He'd break down your front door and tell you he's got the best idea in the world,' said Dr. William A. Wenzel, a senior scientist emeritus at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory who also worked on the antineutron experiment. 'Knowing Oreste, he has a lot of ideas; he throws them out a dozen a minute. Some of them are good, some of them aren't. Nevertheless, I felt he was a good physicist and he contributed to our experiment.' "

9. Poisoner's Corridor.

"a gruesome record": People still die of thallium poisoning today. In 1994, Russian soldiers working at an old cold war weapons depot found a canister of white powder laced with this element. Despite not knowing what it was, they powdered their feet with it and blended it with their tobacco. A few soldiers reportedly even snorted it. All of them came down with a mysterious, entirely unforeseeable illness, and a few died. On a sadder note, two children of Iraqi fighter pilots died in early 2008 after eating a birthday cake laced with thallium. The motive for the poisoning was unclear, although Saddam Hussein had used thallium during his dictators.h.i.+p. People still die of thallium poisoning today. In 1994, Russian soldiers working at an old cold war weapons depot found a canister of white powder laced with this element. Despite not knowing what it was, they powdered their feet with it and blended it with their tobacco. A few soldiers reportedly even snorted it. All of them came down with a mysterious, entirely unforeseeable illness, and a few died. On a sadder note, two children of Iraqi fighter pilots died in early 2008 after eating a birthday cake laced with thallium. The motive for the poisoning was unclear, although Saddam Hussein had used thallium during his dictators.h.i.+p.

"in his mother's backyard": Various newspapers in Detroit have tracked David Hahn over the years, but for the most detailed account of Hahn's story, see Ken Silverstein's article in Various newspapers in Detroit have tracked David Hahn over the years, but for the most detailed account of Hahn's story, see Ken Silverstein's article in Harper's Harper's magazine, "The Radioactive Boy Scout" (November 1998). Silverstein later expanded the article into a book of the same name. magazine, "The Radioactive Boy Scout" (November 1998). Silverstein later expanded the article into a book of the same name.

10. Take Two Elements, Call Me in the Morning.

"a cheaper, lighter copper nose": In addition to studying the crust around Brahe's fake nose, the archaeologists who dug him up also found signs of mercury poisoning in his mustache-probably a result of his active research into alchemy. The usual story of Brahe's demise is that he died of a ruptured bladder. One night at a dinner party with some minor royalty, Brahe drank too much, but he refused to get up and go to the bathroom because he thought leaving the table before his social superiors did would be rude. By the time he got home, hours later, he couldn't pee anymore, and he died eleven excruciating days later. The story has become a legend, but it's possible that mercury poisoning contributed as much or more to the astronomer's death. In addition to studying the crust around Brahe's fake nose, the archaeologists who dug him up also found signs of mercury poisoning in his mustache-probably a result of his active research into alchemy. The usual story of Brahe's demise is that he died of a ruptured bladder. One night at a dinner party with some minor royalty, Brahe drank too much, but he refused to get up and go to the bathroom because he thought leaving the table before his social superiors did would be rude. By the time he got home, hours later, he couldn't pee anymore, and he died eleven excruciating days later. The story has become a legend, but it's possible that mercury poisoning contributed as much or more to the astronomer's death.

"are copper-coated": The elemental compositions of U.S. coins: New pennies (since 1982) are 97.5 percent zinc but have a thin copper coating, to sterilize the part you touch. (Old pennies were 95 percent copper.) Nickels are 75 percent copper, the balance nickel. Dimes, quarters, and half-dollars are 91.67 percent copper, the balance nickel. Dollar coins (besides special-issue gold coins) are 88.5 percent copper, 6 percent zinc, 3.5 percent manganese, and 2 percent nickel. The elemental compositions of U.S. coins: New pennies (since 1982) are 97.5 percent zinc but have a thin copper coating, to sterilize the part you touch. (Old pennies were 95 percent copper.) Nickels are 75 percent copper, the balance nickel. Dimes, quarters, and half-dollars are 91.67 percent copper, the balance nickel. Dollar coins (besides special-issue gold coins) are 88.5 percent copper, 6 percent zinc, 3.5 percent manganese, and 2 percent nickel.

"one-oared rowboats": Some further facts about vanadium: Some creatures (no one knows why) use vanadium in their blood instead of iron, which turns their blood red, apple green, or blue, depending on the creature. When sprinkled into steel, vanadium greatly strengthens the alloy without adding much weight (much like molybdenum and tungsten; see Some further facts about vanadium: Some creatures (no one knows why) use vanadium in their blood instead of iron, which turns their blood red, apple green, or blue, depending on the creature. When sprinkled into steel, vanadium greatly strengthens the alloy without adding much weight (much like molybdenum and tungsten; see chapter 5 chapter 5). In fact, Henry Ford once boomed: "Why, without vanadium there would be no automobiles!"

"forced to double up": The bus metaphor for how electrons fill their sh.e.l.ls one at a time until "someone" is absolutely forced to double up is one of the best in chemistry, both folksy and accurate. It originated with Wolfgang Pauli, who discovered the Pauli "exclusion principle" in 1925. The bus metaphor for how electrons fill their sh.e.l.ls one at a time until "someone" is absolutely forced to double up is one of the best in chemistry, both folksy and accurate. It originated with Wolfgang Pauli, who discovered the Pauli "exclusion principle" in 1925.

"surgical strikes without surgery": Besides gadolinium, gold is often cited as the best hope for treating cancer. Gold absorbs infrared light that otherwise pa.s.ses through the body, and grows extremely warm as it does so. Delivering gold-coated particles into tumor cells could allow doctors to fry the tumors without damaging the surrounding tissue. This method was invented by John Kanzius, a businessman and radio technician who underwent thirty-six rounds of chemotherapy for leukemia beginning in 2003. He felt so nauseated and beaten up by the chemo-and was so filled with despair at the sight of the children with cancer he encountered in his hospital-that he decided there had to be a better way. In the middle of the night, he came up with the idea of heating metal particles, and he built a prototype machine using his wife's baking pans. He tested it by injecting half of a hot dog with a solution of dissolved metals and placing it in a chamber of intense radio waves. The tampered-with side of the hot dog fried, while the other half remained cold. Besides gadolinium, gold is often cited as the best hope for treating cancer. Gold absorbs infrared light that otherwise pa.s.ses through the body, and grows extremely warm as it does so. Delivering gold-coated particles into tumor cells could allow doctors to fry the tumors without damaging the surrounding tissue. This method was invented by John Kanzius, a businessman and radio technician who underwent thirty-six rounds of chemotherapy for leukemia beginning in 2003. He felt so nauseated and beaten up by the chemo-and was so filled with despair at the sight of the children with cancer he encountered in his hospital-that he decided there had to be a better way. In the middle of the night, he came up with the idea of heating metal particles, and he built a prototype machine using his wife's baking pans. He tested it by injecting half of a hot dog with a solution of dissolved metals and placing it in a chamber of intense radio waves. The tampered-with side of the hot dog fried, while the other half remained cold.

"selling it as a supplement": In the May 2009 issue of In the May 2009 issue of Smithsonian, Smithsonian, the article "Honorable Mentions: Near Misses in the Genius Department" describes one Stan Lindberg, a daringly experimental chemist who took it upon himself "to consume every single element of the periodic table." The article notes, "In addition to holding the North American record for mercury poisoning, his gonzo account of a three-week ytterbium bender... ('Fear and Loathing in the Lanthanides') has become a minor cla.s.sic." the article "Honorable Mentions: Near Misses in the Genius Department" describes one Stan Lindberg, a daringly experimental chemist who took it upon himself "to consume every single element of the periodic table." The article notes, "In addition to holding the North American record for mercury poisoning, his gonzo account of a three-week ytterbium bender... ('Fear and Loathing in the Lanthanides') has become a minor cla.s.sic."

I spent a half hour hungrily trying to track down "Fear and Loathing in the Lanthanides" before realizing I'd been had. The piece is pure fiction. (Although who knows? Elements are strange creatures, and ytterbium might very well get you high.) "self-administer 'drugs' such as silver once more": Wired Wired magazine ran a short news story in 2003 about the online reemergence of "silver health scams." The money quote: "Meanwhile, doctors across the country have seen a surge in argyria cases. 'In the last year and a half, I've seen six cases of silver poisoning from these so-called health supplements,' said Bill Robertson, the medical director of the Seattle Poison Center. 'They were the first cases I'd seen in fifty years of medical practice.' " magazine ran a short news story in 2003 about the online reemergence of "silver health scams." The money quote: "Meanwhile, doctors across the country have seen a surge in argyria cases. 'In the last year and a half, I've seen six cases of silver poisoning from these so-called health supplements,' said Bill Robertson, the medical director of the Seattle Poison Center. 'They were the first cases I'd seen in fifty years of medical practice.' "

"only one handedness, or 'chirality' ": It's a bit of a stretcher to claim that people are exclusively left-handed on a molecular level. Even though all of our proteins are indeed left-handed, all of our carbohydrates, as well as our DNA, have a right-handed twist. Regardless, Pasteur's main point remains: in different contexts, our bodies expect and can only process molecules of a specific handedness. Our cells would not be able to translate left-handed DNA, and if we were fed left-handed sugars, our bodies would starve. It's a bit of a stretcher to claim that people are exclusively left-handed on a molecular level. Even though all of our proteins are indeed left-handed, all of our carbohydrates, as well as our DNA, have a right-handed twist. Regardless, Pasteur's main point remains: in different contexts, our bodies expect and can only process molecules of a specific handedness. Our cells would not be able to translate left-handed DNA, and if we were fed left-handed sugars, our bodies would starve.

"the boy lived": Joseph Meister, the little boy Pasteur saved from rabies, ended up becoming the groundskeeper for the Pasteur Inst.i.tute. Tragically, poignantly, he was still groundskeeper in 1940 when German soldiers overran France. When one officer demanded that Meister, the man with the keys, open up Pasteur's crypt so that he, the officer, could view Pasteur's bones, Meister committed suicide rather than be complicit in this act. Joseph Meister, the little boy Pasteur saved from rabies, ended up becoming the groundskeeper for the Pasteur Inst.i.tute. Tragically, poignantly, he was still groundskeeper in 1940 when German soldiers overran France. When one officer demanded that Meister, the man with the keys, open up Pasteur's crypt so that he, the officer, could view Pasteur's bones, Meister committed suicide rather than be complicit in this act.

"by I. G. Farbenindustrie": The company Domagk worked for, I. G. Farbenindustrie (IGF), would later become notorious around the world for manufacturing the insecticide Zyklon B, which the n.a.z.is used to gas concentration camp prisoners (see The company Domagk worked for, I. G. Farbenindustrie (IGF), would later become notorious around the world for manufacturing the insecticide Zyklon B, which the n.a.z.is used to gas concentration camp prisoners (see chapter 5 chapter 5). The company was broken up shortly after World War II, and many of its directors faced war crimes charges at Nuremberg (United States v. Carl Krauch, et al.) for enabling the n.a.z.i government in its aggressive war and mistreating prisoners and captured soldiers. IGF's descendants today include Bayer and BASF.

" 'the chemistry of dead matter and the chemistry of living matter' ": Nevertheless, the universe seems to be chiral on other levels, too, from the subatomic to the supergalactic. The radioactive beta decay of cobalt-60 is an asymmetric process, and cosmologists have seen preliminary evidence that galaxies tend to rotate in counterclockwise spiral arms above our northern galactic pole and in clockwise spirals beneath Antarctica. Nevertheless, the universe seems to be chiral on other levels, too, from the subatomic to the supergalactic. The radioactive beta decay of cobalt-60 is an asymmetric process, and cosmologists have seen preliminary evidence that galaxies tend to rotate in counterclockwise spiral arms above our northern galactic pole and in clockwise spirals beneath Antarctica.

"the most notorious pharmaceutical of the twentieth century": A few scientists recently reconstructed why thalidomide's devastating effects slipped through clinical trials. For nitty-gritty molecular reasons, thalidomide doesn't cause birth defects in litters of mice, and the German company that produced thalidomide, Grunenthal, did not follow up mouse trials with careful human trials. The drug was never approved for pregnant women in the United States because the head of the Food and Drug Administration, Frances Oldham Kelsey, refused to bow to lobbying pressure to push it through. In one of those curious twists of history, thalidomide is now making a comeback to treat diseases such as leprosy, where it's remarkably effective. It's also a good anticancer agent because it limits the growth of tumors by preventing new blood vessels from forming-which is also why it caused such awful birth defects, since embryos' limbs couldn't get the nutrients they needed to grow. Thalidomide still has a long road back to respectability. Most governments have strict protocols in place to make sure doctors do not give the drug to women of childbearing age, on the off chance that they might become pregnant. A few scientists recently reconstructed why thalidomide's devastating effects slipped through clinical trials. For nitty-gritty molecular reasons, thalidomide doesn't cause birth defects in litters of mice, and the German company that produced thalidomide, Grunenthal, did not follow up mouse trials with careful human trials. The drug was never approved for pregnant women in the United States because the head of the Food and Drug Administration, Frances Oldham Kelsey, refused to bow to lobbying pressure to push it through. In one of those curious twists of history, thalidomide is now making a comeback to treat diseases such as leprosy, where it's remarkably effective. It's also a good anticancer agent because it limits the growth of tumors by preventing new blood vessels from forming-which is also why it caused such awful birth defects, since embryos' limbs couldn't get the nutrients they needed to grow. Thalidomide still has a long road back to respectability. Most governments have strict protocols in place to make sure doctors do not give the drug to women of childbearing age, on the off chance that they might become pregnant.

"don't know to make one hand or the other": William Knowles unfolded the molecule by breaking a double bond. When carbon forms double bonds, it has only three "arms" coming out of it: two single bonds and a double. (There are still eight electrons, but they are shared over three bonds.) Carbon atoms with double bonds usually form triangular molecules, since a tricornered arrangement keeps its electrons as far apart as possible (120 degrees). When the double bond breaks, carbon's three arms become four. In that case, the way to keep electrons as far apart as possible is not with a planar square but with a three-dimensional tetrahedron. (The vertices in a square are 90 degrees apart. In a tetrahedron, they're 109.5 degrees apart.) But the extra arm can sprout above or below the molecule, which will in turn give the molecule either left- or right-handedness. William Knowles unfolded the molecule by breaking a double bond. When carbon forms double bonds, it has only three "arms" coming out of it: two single bonds and a double. (There are still eight electrons, but they are shared over three bonds.) Carbon atoms with double bonds usually form triangular molecules, since a tricornered arrangement keeps its electrons as far apart as possible (120 degrees). When the double bond breaks, carbon's three arms become four. In that case, the way to keep electrons as far apart as possible is not with a planar square but with a three-dimensional tetrahedron. (The vertices in a square are 90 degrees apart. In a tetrahedron, they're 109.5 degrees apart.) But the extra arm can sprout above or below the molecule, which will in turn give the molecule either left- or right-handedness.

11. How Elements Deceive.

"in underground particle accelerators": A professor of mine from college once held me captive with a story about how a few people died from nitrogen asphyxiation in a particle accelerator at Los Alamos in the 1960s, under circ.u.mstances very similar to the NASA accident. After the deaths at Los Alamos, my professor added 5 percent carbon dioxide to the gaseous mixtures in the accelerators he worked on, as a safety measure. He later wrote to me, "Incidentally I did put it to the test about a year later, when one of our graduate student operators did exactly the same thing [i.e., forgot to pump the inert air out and let oxygenated air back in]. I entered the pressure vessel with it full of inert gas.... But not really, [because] by the time I got my shoulders through the hole I was already in desperation, panting due to 'breathe more!' commands from my breathing center." Air is normally 0.03 percent CO A professor of mine from college once held me captive with a story about how a few people died from nitrogen asphyxiation in a particle accelerator at Los Alamos in the 1960s, under circ.u.mstances very similar to the NASA accident. After the deaths at Los Alamos, my professor added 5 percent carbon dioxide to the gaseous mixtures in the accelerators he worked on, as a safety measure. He later wrote to me, "Incidentally I did put it to the test about a year later, when one of our graduate student operators did exactly the same thing [i.e., forgot to pump the inert air out and let oxygenated air back in]. I entered the pressure vessel with it full of inert gas.... But not really, [because] by the time I got my shoulders through the hole I was already in desperation, panting due to 'breathe more!' commands from my breathing center." Air is normally 0.03 percent CO2, so one breath of the doped air was about 167 times more potent.

"scales up very quickly to toxic": To its shame and embarra.s.sment, the U.S. government admitted in 1999 that it had knowingly exposed up to twenty-six thousand scientists and technicians to high levels of powdered beryllium, to the extent that hundreds of them developed chronic beryllium disease and related ailments. Most of the people poisoned worked in aeros.p.a.ce, defense, or atomic energy-industries the government decided were too important to arrest or impede, so it neither improved safety standards nor developed an alternative to beryllium. The To its shame and embarra.s.sment, the U.S. government admitted in 1999 that it had knowingly exposed up to twenty-six thousand scientists and technicians to high levels of powdered beryllium, to the extent that hundreds of them developed chronic beryllium disease and related ailments. Most of the people poisoned worked in aeros.p.a.ce, defense, or atomic energy-industries the government decided were too important to arrest or impede, so it neither improved safety standards nor developed an alternative to beryllium. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Pittsburgh Post-Gazette ran a long and d.a.m.ning front-page expose on Tuesday, March 30, 1999. It was t.i.tled "Decades of Risk," but one of the subt.i.tles captures the pith of the story better: "Deadly Alliance: How Industry and Government Chose Weapons over Workers." ran a long and d.a.m.ning front-page expose on Tuesday, March 30, 1999. It was t.i.tled "Decades of Risk," but one of the subt.i.tles captures the pith of the story better: "Deadly Alliance: How Industry and Government Chose Weapons over Workers."

"and calcium": However, scientists at the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia believe that in addition to sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and savory (umami), humans have a separate, unique taste for calcium, too. They've definitely found it in mice, and some humans respond to calcium-enriched water as well. So what does calcium taste like? From an announcement about the findings: " 'Calcium tastes calciumy,' [lead scientist Michael] Tordoff said. 'There isn't a better word for it. It is bitter, perhaps even a little sour. But it's much However, scientists at the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia believe that in addition to sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and savory (umami), humans have a separate, unique taste for calcium, too. They've definitely found it in mice, and some humans respond to calcium-enriched water as well. So what does calcium taste like? From an announcement about the findings: " 'Calcium tastes calciumy,' [lead scientist Michael] Tordoff said. 'There isn't a better word for it. It is bitter, perhaps even a little sour. But it's much more more because there are actual receptors for calcium.' " because there are actual receptors for calcium.' "

"like so much sand": Sour taste buds can also go flat. These taste buds respond mostly to the hydrogen ion, H Sour taste buds can also go flat. These taste buds respond mostly to the hydrogen ion, H+, but in 2009 scientists discovered that they can taste carbon dioxide as well. (CO2 combines with H combines with H2O to make a weak acid, H2CO3, so perhaps that's why these taste buds perk up.) Doctors discovered this because some prescription drugs, as a side effect, suppress the ability to taste carbon dioxide. The resulting medical condition is known as the "champagne blues," since all carbonated beverages taste flat.

12. Political Elements.

"killed Pierre": Pierre might not have lived long anyway. In a poignant memory, Rutherford once recalled watching Pierre Curie do an astounding glow-in-the-dark experiment with radium. But in the feeble green glow, the alert Rutherford noticed scars covering Pierre's swollen, inflamed fingers and saw how difficult it was for him to grasp and manipulate a test tube. Pierre might not have lived long anyway. In a poignant memory, Rutherford once recalled watching Pierre Curie do an astounding glow-in-the-dark experiment with radium. But in the feeble green glow, the alert Rutherford noticed scars covering Pierre's swollen, inflamed fingers and saw how difficult it was for him to grasp and manipulate a test tube.

"her rocky personal life": For more details about the Curies especially, see Sheilla Jones's wonderful book For more details about the Curies especially, see Sheilla Jones's wonderful book The Quantum Ten The Quantum Ten, an account of the surprisingly contentious and fractious early days of quantum mechanics, circa 1925.

"pre-seeped bottles of radium and thorium water": The most famous casualty of the radium craze was the steel tyc.o.o.n Eben Byers, who drank a bottle of Radithor's radium water every day for four years, convinced it would provide him with something like immortality. He ended up wasting away and dying from cancer. Byers wasn't any more fanatical about radioactivity than a lot of people; he simply had the means to drink as much of the water as he wished. The The most famous casualty of the radium craze was the steel tyc.o.o.n Eben Byers, who drank a bottle of Radithor's radium water every day for four years, convinced it would provide him with something like immortality. He ended up wasting away and dying from cancer. Byers wasn't any more fanatical about radioactivity than a lot of people; he simply had the means to drink as much of the water as he wished. The Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal commemorated his death with the headline, "The Radium Water Worked Fine Until His Jaw Came Off." commemorated his death with the headline, "The Radium Water Worked Fine Until His Jaw Came Off."

"its spot on the table": For the true story of hafnium's discovery, see Eric Scerri's For the true story of hafnium's discovery, see Eric Scerri's The Periodic Table, The Periodic Table, a thorough and superbly doc.u.mented account of the rise of the periodic system, including the often strange philosophies and worldviews of the people who founded it. a thorough and superbly doc.u.mented account of the rise of the periodic system, including the often strange philosophies and worldviews of the people who founded it.

"special 'heavy' water ": Hevesy performed heavy-water experiments on goldfish as well as himself, and he ended up killing a number of them. Hevesy performed heavy-water experiments on goldfish as well as himself, and he ended up killing a number of them.

Gilbert Lewis also used heavy water in a last-ditch effort to win the n.o.bel Prize in the early 1930s. Lewis knew that Harold Urey's discovery of deuterium-heavy hydrogen with an extra neutron-would win the n.o.bel Prize, as did every other scientist in the world, including Urey. (After a mostly lackl.u.s.ter career that included ridicule from his in-laws, he came home right after discovering deuterium and told his wife, "Honey, our troubles are over.") Lewis decided to hitch himself to this no-miss prize by investigating the biological effects of water made with heavy hydrogen. Others had the same idea, but Berkeley's physics department, headed by Ernest O. Lawrence, happened to have the world's largest supply of heavy water, quite by accident. The team had a tank of water it had been using for years in radioactivity experiments, and the tank had a relatively high concentration of heavy water (a few ounces). Lewis begged Lawrence to let him purify the heavy water, and Lawrence agreed-on the condition that Lewis give it back after his experiments, since it might prove important in Lawrence's research, too.

Lewis broke his promise. After isolating the heavy water, he decided to give it to a mouse and see what happened. One queer effect of heavy water is that, like ocean water, the more you drink, the more throat-scratchingly thirsty you feel, since the body cannot metabolize it. Hevesy ingested heavy water in trace amounts, so his body really didn't notice, but Lewis's mouse gulped all the heavy water in a few hours and ended up dead. Killing a mouse was hardly a n.o.bel Prizeworthy exercise, and Lawrence went apoplectic when he learned a lousy rodent had peed away all his precious heavy water.

"blocked him for personal reasons": Kazimierz Fajans's son Stefan Fajans, now a professor emeritus of internal medicine at the University of Michigan's medical school, kindly supplied information to me in an e-mail: Kazimierz Fajans's son Stefan Fajans, now a professor emeritus of internal medicine at the University of Michigan's medical school, kindly supplied information to me in an e-mail: In 1924 I was six years old, but either then and certainly in the years to follow I did hear from my father of some aspects of the n.o.bel Prize story. That a Stockholm newspaper published a headline "K. Fajans to Receive n.o.bel Prize" (I do not know whether it was in chemistry or physics) is not rumor but fact. I remember seeing a copy of that newspaper. I also remember seeing in that newspaper a photo of my father walking in front of a building in Stockholm (probably taken earlier) in somewhat formal dress but not [formal] for that time.... What I did hear was that an influential member of the committee blocked the award to my father for personal reasons. Whether that was rumor or fact is impossible to know unless someone could look at the minutes of these meetings. I believe they are secret. I do know as a fact that my father expected to receive the n.o.bel Prize as intimated to him by some people in the know. He expected to receive it in the years to follow.... but it never happened, as you know.

" 'protactinium' stuck": Meitner and Hahn actually named their element "protoactinium," and only in 1949 did scientists shorten it by removing the extra Meitner and Hahn actually named their element "protoactinium," and only in 1949 did scientists shorten it by removing the extra o o.

" 'disciplinary bias, political obtuseness, ignorance, and haste' ": There's a wonderful dissection of Meitner, Hahn, and the awarding of the n.o.bel Prize in the September 1997 issue of There's a wonderful dissection of Meitner, Hahn, and the awarding of the n.o.bel Prize in the September 1997 issue of Physics Today Physics Today ("A n.o.bel Tale of Postwar Injustice" by Elisabeth Crawford, Ruth Lewin Sime, and Mark Walker). The article is the source of the quote about Meitner losing the prize because of "disciplinary bias, political obtuseness, ignorance and haste." ("A n.o.bel Tale of Postwar Injustice" by Elisabeth Crawford, Ruth Lewin Sime, and Mark Walker). The article is the source of the quote about Meitner losing the prize because of "disciplinary bias, political obtuseness, ignorance and haste."

"the peculiar rules for naming elements": Once a name has been proposed for an element, the name gets only one shot at appearing on the periodic table. If the evidence for the element falls apart, or if the international governing body of chemistry (IUPAC) rules against an element's name, it is blacklisted. This might feel satisfying in the case of Otto Hahn, but it also means that no one can ever name an element "joliotium" after Irene or Frederic Joliot-Curie, since "joliotium" was once an official candidate name for element 105. It's unclear whether "ghiorsium" has another shot. Perhaps "alghiorsium" would work, although IUPAC frowns on using first and last names, and in fact once rejected "nielsbohrium" in favor of plain "bohrium" for element 107-a decision that didn't please the West German team that discovered 107, since "bohrium" sounds too much like boron and barium. Once a name has been proposed for an element, the name gets only one shot at appearing on the periodic table. If the evidence for the element falls apart, or if the international governing body of chemistry (IUPAC) rules against an element's name, it is blacklisted. This might feel satisfying in the case of Otto Hahn, but it also means that no one can ever name an element "joliotium" after Irene or Frederic Joliot-Curie, since "joliotium" was once an official candidate name for element 105. It's unclear whether "ghiorsium" has another shot. Perhaps "alghiorsium" would work, although IUPAC frowns on using first and last names, and in fact once rejected "nielsbohrium" in favor of plain "bohrium" for element 107-a decision that didn't please the West German team that discovered 107, since "bohrium" sounds too much like boron and barium.

13. Elements as Money.

"in Colorado in the 1860s": The fact that gold-tellurium compounds were discovered in the mountains of Colorado is reflected in the name of a local mining town, Telluride, Colorado. The fact that gold-tellurium compounds were discovered in the mountains of Colorado is reflected in the name of a local mining town, Telluride, Colorado.

"It's called fluorescence": To clarify some easily (and often) confused terms, "luminescence" is the umbrella term for a substance absorbing and emitting light. "Fluorescence" is the instantaneous process described in this chapter. "Phosph.o.r.escence" is similar to fluorescence-it consists of molecules absorbing high-frequency light and emitting low-frequency light-but phosph.o.r.escing molecules absorb light like a battery and continue to glow long after the light shuts off. Obviously, both fluorescence and phosph.o.r.escence derive from elements on the periodic table, fluorine and phosphorus, the two most prominent elements in the molecules that first exhibited these traits to chemists. To clarify some easily (and often) confused terms, "luminescence" is the umbrella term for a substance absorbing and emitting light. "Fluorescence" is the instantaneous process described in this chapter. "Phosph.o.r.escence" is similar to fluorescence-it consists of molecules absorbing high-frequency light and emitting low-frequency light-but phosph.o.r.escing molecules absorb light like a battery and continue to glow long after the light shuts off. Obviously, both fluorescence and phosph.o.r.escence derive from elements on the periodic table, fluorine and phosphorus, the two most prominent elements in the molecules that first exhibited these traits to chemists.

"the silicon semiconductor revolution eighty years later": Moore's law says that the number of silicon transistors on a microchip will double every eighteen months-amazingly, it has held true since the 1960s. Had the law held for aluminium, Alcoa would have been producing 400,000 pounds of aluminium per day within two decades of starting up, not just 88,000. So aluminium did well, but not quite well enough to beat its neighbor on the periodic table. Moore's law says that the number of silicon transistors on a microchip will double every eighteen months-amazingly, it has held true since the 1960s. Had the law held for aluminium, Alcoa would have been producing 400,000 pounds of aluminium per day within two decades of starting up, not just 88,000. So aluminium did well, but not quite well enough to beat its neighbor on the periodic table.

"Alcoa shares worth $30 million": There's some discrepancy about the magnitude of Charles Hall's wealth at his death. Thirty million dollars is the high end of the range. The confusion may be because Hall died in 1914 but his estate was not settled until fourteen years later. One-third of his estate went to Oberlin College. There's some discrepancy about the magnitude of Charles Hall's wealth at his death. Thirty million dollars is the high end of the range. The confusion may be because Hall died in 1914 but his estate was not settled until fourteen years later. One-third of his estate went to Oberlin College.

"spelling disagreement": Aside from differences Aside from differences between between languages, other spelling discrepancies languages, other spelling discrepancies within within a language occur with cesium, which the British tend to spell "caesium," and sulfur, which many people still spell "sulphur." You could make a case that element 110 should be spelled mendel a language occur with cesium, which the British tend to spell "caesium," and sulfur, which many people still spell "sulphur." You could make a case that element 110 should be spelled mendeleevium, not mendelevium, and that element 111 should be spelled rontgenium, not roentgenium.

14. Artistic Elements.

"Sybille Bedford could write": The Sybille Bedford quote comes from her novel The Sybille Bedford quote comes from her novel A Legacy A Legacy.

"a hobby": Speaking of strange hobbies, I can't Speaking of strange hobbies, I can't not not share this in a book full of quirky stories about elements. This anagram won the Special Category prize for May 1999 at the Web site share this in a book full of quirky stories about elements. This anagram won the Special Category prize for May 1999 at the Web site Anagrammy.com, and as far as I'm concerned, this "doubly-true anagram" is the word puzzle of the millennium. The first half equates thirty elements on the periodic table with thirty other elements: hydrogen + zirconium + tin + oxygen + rhenium + platinum + tellurium + terbium + n.o.belium + chromium + iron + cobalt + carbon + aluminum + ruthenium + silicon + ytterbium + hafnium + sodium + selenium + cerium + manganese + osmium + uranium + nickel + praseodymium + erbium + vanadium + thallium + plutonium=nitrogen + zinc + rhodium + helium + argon + neptunium + beryllium + bromine + lutetium + boron + calcium + thorium + niobium + lanthanum + mercury + fluorine + bis.m.u.th + actinium + silver + cesium + neodymium + magnesium + xenon + samarium + scandium + europium + berkelium + palladium + antimony + thulium That's pretty amazing, even if the number of ium ium endings mitigated the difficulty a little. The kicker is that if you replace each element with its atomic number, the anagram still balances. endings mitigated the difficulty a little. The kicker is that if you replace each element with its atomic number, the anagram still balances.

1 + 40 + 50 + 8 + 75 + 78 + 52 + 65 + 102 + 24 + 26 + 27 + 6 + 13 + 44 + 14 + 70 + 72 + 11 + 34 + 58 + 25 + 76 + 92 + 28 + 59 + 68 + 23 + 81 + 94=7 + 30 + 45 + 2 + 18 + 93 + 4 + 35 + 71 + 5 + 20 + 90 + 41 + 57 + 80 + 9 + 83 + 89 + 47 + 55 + 60 + 12 + 54 + 62 + 21 + 63 + 97 + 46 + 51 + 69=1416.

As the anagram's author, Mike Keith, said, "This is the longest doubly-true anagram ever constructed (using the chemical elements-or any other set of this type, as far as I know)."

Along these lines, there's also Tom Lehrer's incomparable song "The Elements." He adapted the tune from Gilbert and Sullivan's "I Am the Very Model of a Modern Major-General," and in it he names every element on the periodic table in a brisk eighty-six seconds. Check it out on YouTube: "There's antimony, a.r.s.enic, aluminum, selenium..."

" 'Plutonists' ": Plutonists were sometimes called Vulcanists, too, after the fire G.o.d Vulcan. This moniker emphasized the role of volcanoes in the formation of rocks. Plutonists were sometimes called Vulcanists, too, after the fire G.o.d Vulcan. This moniker emphasized the role of volcanoes in the formation of rocks.

"Dobereiner's pillars": Dobereiner called his groupings of elements not triads but affinities, part of his larger theory of chemical affinities-a term that gave Goethe (who frequently attended Dobereiner's lectures at Jena) the inspiration for the t.i.tle Dobereiner called his groupings of elements not triads but affinities, part of his larger theory of chemical affinities-a term that gave Goethe (who frequently attended Dobereiner's lectures at Jena) the inspiration for the t.i.tle Elective Affinities Elective Affinities.

"inches close to majesty": Another majestic design inspired by elements is the wooden Periodic Table Table, a coffee table built by Theodore Gray. The table has more than one hundred slots on top, in which Gray has stored samples of every extant element, including many exclusively man-made ones. Of course, he has only minute quant.i.ties of some. His samples of francium and astatine, the two rarest natural elements, are actually hunks of uranium. Gray's argument is that somewhere buried deep inside those hunks are at least a few atoms of each one, which is true and honestly about as good as anyone has ever done. Besides, since most of the elements on the table are gray metals, it's hard to tell them apart anyway. Another majestic design inspired by elements is the wooden Periodic Table Table, a coffee table built by Theodore Gray. The table has more than one hundred slots on top, in which Gray has stored samples of every extant element, including many exclusively man-made ones. Of course, he has only minute quant.i.ties of some. His samples of francium and astatine, the two rarest natural elements, are actually hunks of uranium. Gray's argument is that somewhere buried deep inside those hunks are at least a few atoms of each one, which is true and honestly about as good as anyone has ever done. Besides, since most of the elements on the table are gray metals, it's hard to tell them apart anyway.

"ruthenium began capping every Parker 51 in 1944": For the details about the metallurgy of the Parker 51, see "Who Was That Man?" by Daniel A. Zazove and L. Michael Fultz, which appeared in the fall 2000 issue of For the details about the metallurgy of the Parker 51, see "Who Was That Man?" by Daniel A. Zazove and L. Michael Fultz, which appeared in the fall 2000 issue of Pennant, Pennant, the house publication of the Pen Collectors of America. The article is a wonderful instance of dedicated amateur history-of keeping alive an obscure but charming bit of Americana. Other resources for Parker pen information include the house publication of the Pen Collectors of America. The article is a wonderful instance of dedicated amateur history-of keeping alive an obscure but charming bit of Americana. Other resources for Parker pen information include Parker51.com and and Vintagepens.com.

The famed tip on the Parker 51 was actually 96 percent ruthenium and 4 percent iridium. The company advertised the nibs as being made of super-durable "plathenium," presumably to mislead compet.i.tors into thinking that expensive platinum was the key.

"which Remington turned around and printed anyway": The text of the letter Twain sent to Remington (which the company printed verbatim) is as follows: The text of the letter Twain sent to Remington (which the company printed verbatim) is as follows: GENTLEMEN: Please do not use my name in any way. Please do not even divulge the fact that I own a machine. I have entirely stopped using the Type-Writer, for the reason that I never could write a letter with it to anybody without receiving a request by return mail that I would not only describe the machine, but state what progress I had made in the use of it, etc., etc. I don't like to write letters, and so I don't want people to know I own this curiosity-breeding little joker. Yours truly, Saml. L. Clemens Yours truly, Saml. L. Clemens

15. An Element of Madness.

"pathological science": Credit for the phrase "pathological science" goes to chemist Irving Langmuir, who gave a speech about it in the 1950s. Two interesting notes on Langmuir: He was the younger, brighter colleague whose n.o.bel Prize and impudence at lunch might have driven Gilbert Lewis to kill himself (see Credit for the phrase "pathological science" goes to chemist Irving Langmuir, who gave a speech about it in the 1950s. Two interesting notes on Langmuir: He was the younger, brighter colleague whose n.o.bel Prize and impudence at lunch might have driven Gilbert Lewis to kill himself (see chapter 1 chapter 1). Later in life, Langmuir grew obsessed with controlling the weather by seeding clouds-a muddled process that skirted awfully close to becoming a pathological science itself. Not even the great ones are immune.

In writing this chapter, I departed somewhat from Langmuir's description of pathological science, which was rather narrow and legalistic. Another take on the meaning of pathological science comes from Denis Rousseau, who wrote a top-rate article called "Case Studies in Pathological Science" for American Scientist American Scientist in 1992. However, I'm also departing from Rousseau, mostly to include sciences such as paleontology that aren't as data driven as other, more famous cases of pathological science. in 1992. However, I'm also departing from Rousseau, mostly to include sciences such as paleontology that aren't as data driven as other, more famous cases of pathological science.

"Philip died at sea": Philip Crookes, William's brother, died on a vessel laying some of the first transatlantic cables for telegraph lines. Philip Crookes, William's brother, died on a vessel laying some of the first transatlantic cables for telegraph lines.