Higher Lessons in English Part 51

+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+.

+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.

+Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative p.r.o.nouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses.

To THE TEACHER.--We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils should he able to name the different groups, and some of the most common connectives of each group.

+Co-ordinate Connectives.+ [Footnote: +Copulative+ conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought; +Adversative+ conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning; +Alternative+ conjunctions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76.]

+Copulative+.--_And_, _both_ ... _and_, _as well as_ [Footnote: The _as well as_ in, _He, as well as I, went_; and not that in, _He is as well as I am_.] are conjunctions proper. _Accordingly_, _also_, _besides_, _consequently_, _furthermore_, _hence_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _now_, _so_, _then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Adversative+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _However_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_, _still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Alternative+.--_Neither_, _nor_, _or_, _either_ ... _or_, and _neither_ ... _nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Subordinate Connectives.+

CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

_That_, _what_, _whatever_, _which_, _whichever_, _who_, and _whoever_ are relative p.r.o.nouns. _When_, _where_, _whereby_, _wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs.

CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES.

_Time_.--_After_, _as_, _before_, _ere_, _since_, _till_, _until_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs.

_Place_.--_Whence_, _where_, and _wherever _are conjunctive adverbs.

_Degree_.--_As_, _than_, _that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs.

_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb.

_Real Cause_.--_As_, _because_, _for_, _since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper.

_Evidence_.--_Because_, _for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper.

_Purpose_.--_In order that_, _lest_ (= _that not_), _that_, and _so that_ are conjunctions proper.

Condition.--Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper.

_Concession_.--_Although_, _if_ (= _even if_), _notwithstanding_, _though_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb.

_Whatever_, _whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative p.r.o.nouns used indefinitely.

CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES.

_If_, _lest_, _that_, and _whether_ [Footnote: Etymologically, _whether_ is restricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very freely used with three or more.

The repet.i.tion of _whether_, like the use of it with three or more things, has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it.

_Whether or no_ is also allowed.] are conjunctions proper. _What_, _which_, and _who_ are p.r.o.nouns introducing questions; and _how_, _when_, _whence_, _where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions.

+Direction+.--_Study the lists above_, _and point out all the connectives in Lessons_ 80 and 81, _telling which are relative p.r.o.nouns_, _which are conjunctions proper_, _and which are conjunctive adverbs_.

+TO THE TEACHER+.--If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the course.

LESSON 101.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinate connectives_.

LESSON 102.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner_.

LESSON 103.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses_.

LESSON 104.

CONNECTIVES.

a.n.a.lysis.

+Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then a.n.a.lyze the sentences_:--

+As+ may connect a clause expressing +manner+, +time+, +degree+, +cause+, or +evidence+.

1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Was.h.i.+ngton.

2. As I pa.s.sed by, I found an altar with this inscription.

3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas.

4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing.

5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand.

+If+ may connect a clause expressing +condition+, +time+, or +concession+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause.