The Economic Aspect of Geology Part 30

The grade of graphite deposits varies widely, their utilization being largely dependent on the size of the grains and the ease of concentration. Some of the richest deposits, those of Madagascar, contain 20 per cent or more of graphite. The United States deposits contain only 3 to 10 per cent. The graphite situation is complicated by the differences in the quality of different supplies. Crucibles require coa.r.s.ely crystalline graphite, but pencils, lubricants, and foundry facings may use amorphous and finely crystalline material.

The largest production of high-grade crucible graphite has come from Ceylon, under British control, and about two-thirds of the output has come to the United States. The mines are now worked down to water-level and costs are increasing.

In later years a rival supply has come from the French island of Madagascar, where conditions are more favorable to cheap production, and where reserves are very large. French, British, and Belgian interests are concerned in the development of these deposits. The quality of graphite is different from the Ceylon product; it has not found favor in the United States but is apparently satisfactory to crucible makers in Europe. Most of the output is exported to Great Britain and France, and smaller amounts to Germany and Belgium.

Less satisfactory supplies of crystalline graphite are available in many countries, including Bavaria, Canada, and j.a.pan. Large deposits of crystalline material have been reported in Greenland, Brazil, and Roumania, but as yet have a.s.sumed no commercial importance.

Amorphous graphite is widely distributed, being produced in about twenty countries,--chiefly in Austria, Italy, Korea, and Mexico. Certain deposits have been found to be best for special uses, but most countries could get along with nearby supplies.

A large part of the world's needs of crucible graphite will probably continue to be met from Ceylon and Madagascar, while a large part of the amorphous graphite will come from the four sources mentioned.

The United States has been largely dependent upon importations from Ceylon for crucible graphite. Domestic supplies are large and capable of further development, but for the most part the flake is of such quality that it is not desired for crucible manufacture without large admixture of the Ceylon material. Restrictions during the war required crucible makers to use at least 20 per cent of domestic or Canadian graphite in their mixtures, with 80 per cent of foreign graphite. This created a demand for domestic graphite which caused an increased domestic output.

Most of the production in the United States comes from the Appalachians, particularly from Alabama, New York, and Pennsylvania, and smaller amounts are obtained from California, Montana, and Texas. One of the permanently beneficial effects of the war was the improvement of concentrating practice and the standardization of output, to enable the domestic product to compete more effectively with the well-standardized imported grades. Whether the domestic production will hold its own with foreign compet.i.tion under peace conditions remains to be seen. Domestic reserves are large but of low grade.

The Madagascar graphite, in the shape and size of the flakes, is more like the American domestic graphite than the Ceylon product. Small amounts have been used in this country, but American consumers appear in general to prefer the Ceylon graphite in spite of its greater cost. The Madagascar product can be produced and supplied to eastern United States markets much more cheaply than any other large supply; and, in view of the possible exhaustion of the Ceylon deposits, it may be desirable for American users to adapt crucible manufacture to the use of Madagascar material as has already apparently been done in Europe.

Expansion of the American graphite industry during the war, and its subsequent collapse, have resulted in agitation for a duty on imports of foreign graphite.

Amorphous graphite is produced from some deposits in the United States (Colorado, Nevada, and Rhode Island), but the high quality of Mexican graphite, which is controlled by a company in the United States, makes it likely that imports from this source will continue. Since the war the Mexican material has practically replaced the Austrian graphite in American markets. The output of Korea is divided between the United States and England.

Artificial graphite, in amounts about equal to the domestic production of amorphous graphite, is produced from anthracite or petroleum c.o.ke at Niagara Falls.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

The mineral graphite is a soft, steel-gray, crystalline form of carbon.

Ceylon graphite occurs in veins and lenses cutting gneisses and limestones. Usually the veins consist almost entirely of graphite, but sometimes other minerals occur in important amounts, especially pyrite and quartz. The a.s.sociation of graphite with these minerals, and also with feldspar, pyroxene, apat.i.te, and other minerals, suggests that the veins are of igneous origin, like some of the pegmat.i.te veins in the Adirondacks of New York. The graphite is mined from open pits and shafts, and sorted by hand and mechanically. The product consists of angular lumps or chips with a relatively small amount of surface in proportion to their volume.

In Madagascar the graphite is mainly disseminated in a graphitic schist, though to some extent it is present in the form of veins and in gneiss.

Most of the graphite is mined from a weathered zone near the surface, and the material is therefore soft and easily concentrated. The product is made up of flakes or scales, and in the making of crucibles requires the use of larger amounts of clay binder than the Ceylon graphite.

The flake graphite of the United States, princ.i.p.ally in the Appalachian region, occurs in crystalline graphitic schists, resulting from the anamorphism of sedimentary rocks containing organic matter. Certain beds or zones of comparatively narrow width carry from 3 to 10 per cent of disseminated graphite. The graphite is recovered by mechanical processes of sorting. The graphite is believed to be of organic origin, the change from organic carbon to graphite having been effected by heat and pressure accompanying mountain-building stresses. Some of the graphite also occurs in pegmat.i.te intrusives and adjacent wall rocks. This graphite is considered to be of inorganic origin, formed by the breaking up of gaseous oxides of carbon in the original magma of the pegmat.i.tes.

The Montana graphite is similar in origin. This inorganic graphite in pegmat.i.te veins resembles Ceylon graphite, in breaking into large lumps and chips, but supplies are very limited.

Amorphous graphite is formed in many places where coal and other carbonaceous materials have undergone extreme metamorphism. It represents simply a continuation in the processes by which high grade coals are formed from plant matter (pp. 123-127). The Mexican deposits are of this type, and occur in beds up to 24 feet in thickness interbedded with metamorphosed sandstones.

In general, graphite is primarily concentrated both by igneous processes in dikes, and by sedimentary processes in beds. In the latter case anamorphism is necessary to recrystallize the carbon into the form of graphite.

GYPSUM

ECONOMIC FEATURES

The princ.i.p.al use of gypsum is in structural materials. About two-thirds of the gypsum produced in the United States is used in the manufacture of various plasters--wall plaster, plaster of Paris, and Keene's cement (for statuary and decorative purposes),--and about a fifth is used as a r.e.t.a.r.der in Portland cement. Another important structural use is in the manufacture of plaster boards, blocks, and tile for interior construction. Gypsum is used as a fertilizer under the name of "land plaster," and with the growing recognition of the lack of sulphur in various soils an extension of its application is not unlikely. Minor uses are in the polis.h.i.+ng of plate gla.s.s, in the manufacture of dental plaster, in white pigments, in steampipe coverings, and as a filler in cotton goods.

The world's gypsum deposits are widely distributed. Of foreign countries, France, Canada, and the United Kingdom are the princ.i.p.al producers. Germany, Algeria, and India produce comparatively meager amounts. The United States is the largest producer of gypsum in the world. In spite of its large production, the United States normally imports quant.i.ties equivalent to between one-fifteenth and one-tenth of the domestic production, mainly in the crude form from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick for consumption by the mills in the vicinity of New York.

This material is of a better grade than the eastern domestic supply, and is cheaper than the western supply for eastern consumption. During the war this importation was practically stopped because of governmental requisition of the carrying barges for the coal-carrying trade, but with the return of normal conditions it was resumed. There is no prospect of importation of any considerable amount from any other sources. The domestic supply is ample for all demands.

Production of gypsum in the United States comes from eighteen states.

Four-fifths of the total comes from New York, Iowa, Michigan, Ohio, Texas, and Oklahoma. There are extensive deposits in some of the western states, the known reserves in Wyoming alone being sufficient for the entire world demands for many decades.

The United States exports a small amount of crude gypsum to Canada, princ.i.p.ally for use in Portland cement manufacture. This exportation is due to geographic location. The United States is the largest manufacturer of plaster boards, insulating materials, and tile, and exports large quant.i.ties of these products to Cuba, Australia, j.a.pan, and South America.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

Gypsum is a hydrated calcium sulphate. It is frequently a.s.sociated with minor quant.i.ties of anhydrite, which is calcium sulphate without water, and under the proper natural conditions either of these materials may be changed into the other.

Common impurities in gypsum deposits include clay and lime carbonate, and also magnesia, silica, and iron oxide. In the material as extracted, impurities may range from a trace to about 25 per cent. _Gypsite_, or gypsum dirt, is an impure mixture of gypsum with clay or sand found in Kansas and some of the western states; it is believed to have been produced in the soil or in shallow lakes, by spring waters carrying calcium sulphate which was leached from gypsum deposits or from other rocks.

Gypsum deposits, like deposits of common salt, occur in beds which are the result of evaporation of salt water. Calcium makes up a small percentage of the dissolved material in the sea, and when sea waters are about 37 per cent evaporated it begins to be precipitated as calcium sulphate. Conditions for precipitation are especially favorable in arid climates, in arms of the sea or in enclosed basins which may or may not once have been connected with the sea. Simultaneously with the deposition of gypsum, there may be occasional inwas.h.i.+ngs of clay and sand, and with slight changes of conditions organic materials of a limey nature may be deposited. Further evaporation of the waters may result in the deposition of common salt. Thus gypsum beds are found interbedded with shales, sandstones, and limestones, and frequently, but not always, they are a.s.sociated with salt beds. The nature of these processes is further discussed under the heading of salt (pp. 295-298).

The anhydrite found in gypsum deposits is formed both by direct precipitation from salt water and by subsequent alteration of the gypsum. The latter process involves a reduction of volume, and consequently a shrinkage and settling of the sediments. The hydration of anhydrite to form gypsum, on the other hand, involves an increase of volume and may result in the doming up and shattering of the overlying sediments.

Gypsum is fairly soluble in ground-water, and sink-holes and solution cavities are often developed in gypsum deposits. These may allow the inwash of surface dirt and also may interfere with the mining.

All the important commercial gypsum deposits are believed to have been formed by evaporation of salt water in the manner indicated. Small quant.i.ties of gypsum are formed also when pyrite and other sulphides oxidize to sulphuric acid and this acid acts on limestone. Thus gypsum is found in the oxide zones of some ore bodies. These occurrences are of no commercial significance.

MICA

ECONOMIC FEATURES

The princ.i.p.al use of sheet mica is for insulating purposes in the manufacture of a large variety of electrical equipment. The highest grades are employed particularly in making condensers for magnetos of automobile and airplane engines and for radio equipment, and in the manufacture of spark plugs for high tension gas engines. Sheet mica is also used in considerable amounts for glazing, for heat insulation, and as phonograph diaphragms. Ground mica is used in pipe and boiler coverings, as an insulator, in patent roofing, and for lubricating and decorative purposes.

India, Canada, and the United States are the important sheet mica-producing countries, before the war accounting for 98 per cent of the world's total. India has long dominated the sheet mica markets of the world, and will probably continue to supply the standard of quality for many years. The bulk of the Indian mica is consumed in the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. The mica of India and the United States is chiefly muscovite. Canada is the chief source of amber mica (phlogopite), though other deposits of potential importance are known in Ceylon and South Africa. Canadian mica is produced chiefly in Quebec and Ontario, and is exported princ.i.p.ally to the United States.

Important deposits of mica (princ.i.p.ally muscovite) are also known in Brazil, Argentina, and German East Africa. Large s.h.i.+pments were made from the two former countries during the war, both to Europe and the United States, and Brazil particularly should become of increasing importance as a producer of mica. The deposits in German East Africa were being quite extensively developed immediately before the war and large s.h.i.+pments were made to Germany in 1913.

The United States is the largest consumer of sheet mica and mica splittings, absorbing normally nearly one-half of the world's production. Approximately three-fifths of this consumption is in the form of mica splittings, most of which are made from muscovite in India and part from amber mica in Canada. Due to the cheapness of labor in India and the amenability of Indian mica to the splitting process, India splittings should continue to dominate the market in this country. Amber mica is a variety peculiarly adapted to certain electrical uses. There are no known commercial deposits of this mica in the United States, but American interests own the largest producing mines in Canada. s.h.i.+pments of Brazilian mica are not of such uniformly high quality as the Indian material, but promise to become of increasing importance in American markets.

Of the sheet mica consumed annually, the United States normally produces about one-third. War conditions, although stimulating the production of domestic mica very considerably, did not materially change the situation in this country as regards the dependence of the United States on foreign supplies for sheet mica.

About 70 per cent of the domestic mica comes from North Carolina and 25 per cent from New Hamps.h.i.+re. The deposits are small and irregular, and mining operations are small and scattered. These conditions are largely responsible for the heterogeneous nature of the American product. It is hardly possible for any one mine to standardize and cla.s.sify its product, although progress was made in this direction during the war by the organization of a.s.sociations of mica producers. This lack of standardization and cla.s.sification is a serious handicap in compet.i.tion with the standard grades and sizes which are available in any desired amounts from foreign sources.

For ground mica, the domestic production exceeds in tonnage the total world production of sheet mica, and is adequate for all demands.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

Mica is a common rock mineral, but is available for commerce only in igneous dikes of a pegmat.i.te nature, where the crystallization is so coa.r.s.e that the mica crystals are exceptionally large. Muscovite mica occurs princ.i.p.ally in the granitic pegmat.i.te dikes. The phlogopite mica of Canada occurs in pyroxenite dikes. The distribution of mica within the dikes is very erratic, making predictions as to reserves hazardous.

The a.s.sociated minerals, mainly quartz and feldspar, are ordinarily present in amounts greater than the mica. Also, individual deposits are likely to be small. For these reasons mining operations cannot be organized on a large scale, but are ordinarily hand-to-mouth operations near the surface. A large amount of hand labor is involved, and the Indian deposits are favored by the cheapness of native labor. The output of a district is from many small mines rather than from any single large one.

Pegmat.i.tes which have been subjected to dynamic metamorphism are often not available as a source of mica, because of the distortion of the mica sheets.