The Economic Aspect of Geology Part 31

The mining of a mica is facilitated by weathering, which softens the a.s.sociated feldspar, making it an easier task to take out the mica blocks. On the other hand, iron staining by surface solutions during weathering may make the mica unfit for electrical and certain other uses.

Sc.r.a.p or ground mica is obtained as a by-product of sheet mica and from deposits where the crystals are not so well developed. Black mica (biot.i.te) and chlorite minerals, which are soft and flexible but not elastic and are found extensively developed in certain schists, have been used to a limited extent for the same purposes.

MOn.a.z.iTE (THORIUM AND CERIUM ORES)

ECONOMIC FEATURES

The mineral mon.a.z.ite is the source of the thorium and cerium compounds which, glowing intensely when heated, form the light-giving material of incandescent gas mantles. Welsbach mantles consist of about 99 per cent thorium oxide and 1 per cent cerium oxide. Cerium metal, alloyed with iron and other metals, forms the spark-producing alloys used in various forms of gas lighters and for lighting cigars, cigarettes, etc.

Mesothorium, a by-product of the manufacture of thorium nitrate for gas mantles, is used as a subst.i.tute for radium in luminous paints and for therapeutic purposes. The alloy ferrocerium is used to a small extent in iron and steel.

The world's supply of mon.a.z.ite is obtained mainly from Brazilian and Indian properties. Before the war German commercial interests controlled most of the production, as well as the manufacture of the thorium products. During the war German control was broken up.

The United States has a supply of domestic mon.a.z.ite of lower grade than the imports, but is dependent under normal conditions on supplies from Brazil and India. The American deposits are chiefly in North and South Carolina, and have been worked only during periods of abnormally high prices or of restriction of imports. Known reserves are small and the deposits will probably never be important producers. During the war, however, the United States became the largest manufacturer of thorium nitrate and gas mantles and exported these products in considerable quant.i.ty. An effort is now being made to secure protective legislation against German thorium products.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

Mon.a.z.ite is a mineral consisting of phosphates of cerium, lanthanum, thorium, and other rare earths in varying proportions. The content of thorium oxide varies from a trace up to 30 per cent, and commercial mon.a.z.ite sands are usually mixed so as to bring the grade up to at least 5 per cent.

Yellowish-brown crystals of mon.a.z.ite have been found scattered through granites, gneisses, and pegmat.i.tes, but in quant.i.ties ordinarily too small to warrant mining. In general the mineral is recovered on a commercial scale only from placers, where it has been concentrated along with other dense, insoluble minerals such as zircon, garnet, ilmenite, and sometimes gold. The Indian and Brazilian mon.a.z.ite is obtained princ.i.p.ally from the sands of ocean beaches, in the same localities from which zircon is recovered (p. 189). The North and South Carolina mon.a.z.ite has been obtained chiefly from stream beds, and to a slight extent by mining and was.h.i.+ng the rotted underlying rock, which is a pegmatized gneiss. Mon.a.z.ite, together with a small amount of gold, is also known in the stream gravels of the Boise Basin, Idaho, where a large granitic batholith evidently carries the mineral spa.r.s.ely distributed throughout. These deposits have not been worked.

PRECIOUS STONES

ECONOMIC FEATURES

Precious stones range high in the world's annual production of mineral values. A hundred or more minerals are used to some degree as precious stones; but those most prized, representing upwards of 90 per cent of the total production value, are diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphire, and emerald. In total value the diamonds have an overwhelming dominance.

Over a ton of diamonds is mined annually.

Diamonds come mainly from South Africa, which produces over 99 per cent of the total. Pearls come chiefly from the Indian and Pacific oceans.

Burma is the princ.i.p.al source of fine rubies. Siam is the princ.i.p.al producer of sapphires. Colombia is the princ.i.p.al source of fine emeralds.

The United States produces small amounts of sapphires (in Montana) and pearls (from fresh-water molluscs). Diamonds, rubies, and emeralds are practically absent on a commercial scale. Of other precious and semi-precious gem stones produced in the United States, the princ.i.p.al ones are quartz, tourmaline, and turquoise.

On the other hand, the United States absorbs by purchase over half of the world's production of precious stones. It is estimated roughly that there are now in the United States nearly one billion dollars' worth of diamonds, or over one-half of the world's acc.u.mulated stock, and probably the proportions for the other stones are not far different.

Value attaches to a precious stone because of its qualities of beauty, coupled with endurance and rarity, or because of some combination of these features which has caught the popular fancy. No one of these qualities is sufficient to make a stone highly prized; neither does the possession of all of them insure value. Some beautiful and enduring stones are so rare that they are known only to collectors and have no standard market value. Others fail to catch the popular fancy for reasons not obvious to the layman. While the intrinsic qualities go far in determining the desirability of a stone, it is clear that whim and chance have been no small factors in determining the demand or lack of demand for some stones. As in other minerals, value has both its intrinsic and extrinsic elements.

For the leading precious stones above named, the values are more nearly standard throughout the world than for any other minerals, with the exception of gold and possibly platinum. Highly prized everywhere and easily transported, the price levels show comparatively little variation over the world when allowance is made for exchange and taxes. The valuation of precious stones is a highly specialized art, involving the appraisal not only of intrinsic qualities, but of the appeal which the stone will make to the buying public. In marking a sale price for some exceptional stone not commonly handled in the trade, experts in different parts of the world often reach an almost uncanny uniformity of opinion.

It is estimated that the world stock of precious stones approximates three billion dollars, or a third of the world's monetary gold reserve.

Because of small bulk and standard value, this wealth may be easily secreted, carried, and exchanged. When the economic fabric of civilization is disturbed by war or other conditions, precious stones become a medium of transfer and exchange of wealth of no inconsiderable importance.

The beauty of a stone may arise from its color or lack of color, from its translucency or opaqueness, from its high refraction of light, and from the manner of cutting and polis.h.i.+ng to bring out these qualities.

Hardness and durability are desirable qualities. The diamond is the hardest known mineral and the sapphire, ruby, and emerald rank high in this regard. On the other hand the pearl is soft and fragile and yet highly prized.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

The princ.i.p.al precious stones above named are of simple composition.

Diamond is made of carbon; the pearl is calcium carbonate; ruby and sapphire are aluminum oxide--varieties of the mineral corundum; the emerald is silica and alumina, with a minor amount of beryllia. Minute percentages of chromite, iron, manganese, and other substances are often responsible for the colors in these stones. Carbon also const.i.tutes graphite and is the princ.i.p.al element in coal. Lime carbonate is the princ.i.p.al const.i.tuent of limestone and marble. Alumina is the princ.i.p.al const.i.tuent of bauxite, the ore of aluminum, and of the natural abrasives, emery and corundum. Silica, the substance of common quartz, also const.i.tutes gem quartz, amethyst, opal, agate, onyx, etc.

Most of the world's diamonds come from the Kimberley and Transvaal fields of South Africa, where they are found in a much decomposed volcanic rock called "blue ground." This is a rock of dull, greasy appearance consisting largely of serpentine. It was originally peridot.i.te, occurring in necks or plugs of old volcanoes penetrating carbonaceous sediments. When the rock is mined and spread at the surface, it decomposes in the course of six months or a year, allowing it to be washed and mechanically sorted for its diamond content. The amount of ground treated in one of the large mines is about equal to that handled in operating the huge porphyry copper deposit of Bingham, Utah; the annual production of diamonds from the same mine could be carried in a large suit-case.

The diamonds were clearly formed at high temperatures and pressures within the igneous rocks. It has been suggested that the igneous magma may have secured the carbon by the melting of carbonaceous sediments through which it penetrated, but proof of this is difficult to obtain.

Artificial diamonds of small size have been made in the electric furnace under high-pressure conditions not unlike those a.s.sumed to have been present in nature.

Weathering and transportation of rocks containing diamonds have resulted in the development of diamond-bearing placers. The South African diamonds were first found in stream placers, leading to a search for their source and its ultimate discovery under a blanket of soil which completely covered the parent rock. The proportion of diamonds now mined from placers is very small.

The diamonds of Brazil come from placer deposits. This is the princ.i.p.al source of the black diamond so largely used in diamond-drilling.

The United States produces no diamonds on a commercial scale. Small diamonds have been found in peridot.i.te ma.s.ses in Pike County, Arkansas, but these are of very little commercial value. A few diamonds have been found in the glacial drift of Wisconsin and adjacent states, indicating a possible diamond-bearing source somewhere to the north which has not yet been located (p. 317).

Pearls are concretions of lime carbonate of organic origin, and are found in the sh.e.l.ls of certain species of molluscs. Their color or l.u.s.ter is given by organic material or by the interior sh.e.l.l surface against which the pearl is formed. The princ.i.p.al supply comes from the Indian and Pacific Oceans, but some are found in the fresh water mussels of North America, in the Caribbean, and on the western coast of Mexico and Central America.

From the beginning of history the princ.i.p.al source of rubies has been upper Burma, where the stones are found in limestone or marble near the contact with igneous rocks, a.s.sociated with high-temperature minerals.

The weathering of the rock has developed placers from which most of the rubies are recovered. Siam is also an important producer. In the United States rubies have been found in pegmat.i.tes in North Carolina, but these gems are of little commercial importance.

Sapphires are of the same composition as rubies and are found in much the same localities. Most of the sapphires of the best quality come from Siam, where they are found in sandy clay of placer origin. In the United States sapphires are recovered from alluvial deposits along the Missouri River near Helena, Montana, where they are supposed to have been derived from dikes of andesite rocks. In Fergus County, Montana, they are mined from decomposed dikes of lamprophyre (a basic igneous rock). In North Carolina sapphire has been found in pegmat.i.te dikes.

The princ.i.p.al source of fine emeralds is in the Andes in Colombia. Their occurrence here is in calcite veins in a bituminous limestone, but little seems to be known of their origin. The only other emerald locality of commercial importance is in the Ural Mountains of Siberia.

Emeralds have been found in pegmat.i.te dikes in North Carolina and New England, but the production is insignificant.

Tourmaline is a complex hydrous silicate of aluminum and boron, with varying amounts of magnesium, iron, and alkalies. It is a rather common mineral in silicated zones in limestones near igneous contacts, but gem tourmalines are found princ.i.p.ally in pegmat.i.te dikes. They have a wide variety of colors, the red and green gems being the most prized. Maine, California, and Connecticut are the princ.i.p.al American producers.

Turquoise is a hydrated copper-aluminum phosphate. It is found in veinlets near the surface in altered granites and other igneous rocks.

It is usually a.s.sociated with kaolin and frequently with quartz, and is believed to have been formed by surface alterations. In the United States it is produced chiefly in Nevada, Arizona, and Colorado.

In general the princ.i.p.al gem minerals, except pearl and turquoise, occur as original const.i.tuents in igneous intrusives, usually of a pegmat.i.te or peridot.i.te nature. Sapphire, ruby, emerald, and tourmaline result also from contact metamorphism of sediments in the vicinity of igneous rocks. Weathering softens the primary rocks, making it possible to separate the gem stones from the matrix. When eroded and transported the gems are concentrated in placers.

SALT

ECONOMIC FEATURES

The princ.i.p.al uses of salt are in the preserving and seasoning of foods and in chemical industries. Chemical industries require salt for the manufacture of many sodium compounds, and also as a source of hydrochloric acid and chlorine. A minor use of salt is in the making of glazes and enamel on pottery and hardware.

Because of the wide distribution of salt in continental deposits and because of the availability of ocean and salt-lake brines as other sources, most countries of the world either possess domestic supplies of salt adequate for the bulk of their needs, or are able to obtain supplies from nearby foreign countries. Certain sea salts preferred by fish packers and other users are, however, s.h.i.+pped to distant points.

About a fifth of all the salt consumed in the world annually is produced in the United States, and other large producers are Great Britain, Germany, Russia, China, India, and France.

The United States produces almost its entire consumption of salt, which is increasing at a very rapid rate. Salt is produced in fourteen states, but over 85 per cent of the total output comes from Michigan, New York, Ohio, and Kansas. Reserves are practically inexhaustible.

Exports and imports of salt form a very minor part of the United States industry, each being equivalent to less than 5 per cent of the domestic production. A large part of the imported material is coa.r.s.e solar-evaporated sea salt, which is believed by fish and pork packers to be almost essential to their industry. Imports of this salt come from Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the British and Dutch West Indies; during the war, on account of s.h.i.+p shortage, they were confined chiefly to the West Indies. A considerable tonnage of specially prepared kiln-dried salt, desired by b.u.t.ter-makers, is imported from Liverpool, England.

There are also some small imports from Canada, probably because of geographic location. Exports of domestic salt go chiefly to Canada, Cuba, and New Zealand, with smaller amounts to practically all parts of the world.