The Economic Aspect of Geology Part 32

Salt is recovered from salt beds in two ways. About a fourth of the salt produced in the United States is mined through shafts in the same manner as coal, the lumps of salt being broken and sized just as coal is prepared for the market. The larger part of the United States production, however, is derived by pumping water down to the beds to dissolve the salt, and pumping the resulting brine to the surface where it is then evaporated. A considerable amount of salt, also, is recovered from natural brines--which represent the solution of rock salt by ground-waters--and from the waters of salt lakes and the ocean.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

Common salt const.i.tutes the mineral halite, the composition of which is sodium chloride. It is rarely found perfectly pure in nature, but is commonly mixed with other saline materials, such as gypsum and anhydrite, and occasionally with salts of pota.s.sium and magnesium. The general grade of rock-salt deposits, where not admixed with clay, is perhaps 96 to 99 per cent of sodium chloride.

The ultimate source of salt deposits is the sodium and chlorine of igneous rocks. In the weathering of these rocks the soda, being one of the more soluble materials, is leached out and carried off by ground-waters, and in the end a large part of it reaches the sea. The chlorine follows a similar course; however, the amount of chlorine in ordinary igneous rocks is so extremely small that, in order to explain the amount of chlorine present in the sea, it has been thought necessary to appeal to volcanic emanations or to some similar agency. Ocean water contains about 3.5 per cent by weight of dissolved matter, over three-fourths of which consists of the const.i.tuents of common salt.

Chief among the other dissolved materials are magnesium, calcium, pota.s.sium, and SO_4 (the sulphuric acid radical).

When sea water evaporates it becomes saturated with various salts, according to the amounts of these salts present and their relative solubilities. In a general way, after 37 per cent of the water has evaporated gypsum begins to separate out, and after 93 per cent has evaporated common salt begins to be deposited. After a large part of the common salt has been precipitated, the residual liquid, called a "bittern" or "mother liquid," contains chiefly a concentration of the salts of magnesium and pota.s.sium. Still further evaporation will result in their deposition, mainly as complex salts like those found in the Sta.s.sfurt deposit (p. 113).

The actual processes of concentration and precipitation in sea water or other salt waters are much more complex than is indicated by the above simple outline. The solubility of each of the various salts present, and consequently the rate at which each will crystallize out as evaporation proceeds, depends upon the kinds and concentrations of all the other salts in the solution. Temperature, pressure, ma.s.s-action, and the crystallization of double salts are all factors which influence the nature and rate of the processes and add to their complexity. During a large part of the general process, several different salts may be crystallizing out simultaneously. It is evident that gypsum may be precipitated in some quant.i.ty, and that external conditions may then change, so that evaporation ceases or so that the waters are freshened, before any common salt is crystallized out. This fact may explain in part why gypsum beds are more widely distributed than beds of common salt. At the same time the much greater amount of sodium chloride than of calcium sulphate in sea water may explain the greater thickness of many individual salt beds.

The evaporation of salt waters, either from the ocean or from other bodies of water, is believed to have been responsible for nearly all of the important deposits of common salt. This process has been going on from Cambrian time down through all the intervening geologic ages, and can be observed to be actually operative today in various localities.

The beds of salt so formed are found interstratified with shales, sandstones, and limestones, and are frequently a.s.sociated with gypsum.

On a broad scale, they are always lens-shaped, though they vary greatly in extent and thickness.

The necessary conditions for the formation of extensive salt beds include arid climate and bodies of water which are essentially enclosed--either as lakes, as lagoons, or as arms of the sea with restricted outlets,--where evaporation exceeds the contributions of fresh water from rivers, and where circulation from the sea is insufficient to dilute the water and keep it at the same composition as the sea water. Under such conditions the dissolved salts in the enclosed body become concentrated, and precipitation may occur. A change of conditions so that mud or sand is washed in or so that calcareous materials are deposited, followed by a recurrence of salt-precipitation, results in the interstratification of salt beds with shales, sandstones, and limestones.

For the formation of very thick beds of salt, and especially of thick beds of fairly pure composition, however, this simple explanation of conditions is insufficient. The deposits of Michigan and New York occur in beds as much as 21 feet in thickness, with a considerable number of separate beds in a section a few hundred feet thick. Beneath the potash salt deposits of Sta.s.sfurt, beds of common salt 300 to 500 feet in thickness are found, and beds even thicker are known in other localities. When we come to investigate the volume of salts deposited from a given volume of sea water, we find it to be so small that for the formation of 500 feet of salt over a given area, an equivalent area of water 25,000 feet deep would be required. It has therefore been one of the puzzling problems of geology to determine the exact physical conditions under which deposition of these beds took place.

One of the most prominent theories, the "bar" theory, suggests that deposition may have taken place in a bay separated from the sea by a bar. Sea water is supposed to have been able to flow in over the bar or through a narrow channel, so that evaporation in the bay was about balanced by inflow of sea water. Thus the salts of a very large quant.i.ty of sea water may have acc.u.mulated in a small bay. As the process went on, the salts would become progressively more concentrated, and would be precipitated in great thickness. A final complete separation of the basin from the sea, for instance by the relative elevation of the land, might result in complete desiccation, and deposition of pota.s.sium-magnesium salts such as those found at Sta.s.sfurt (p. 113).

Another suggestion to explain the thickness of some salt beds is that the salts in a very large basin of water may, as the water evaporated and the basin shrank, have been deposited in great thickness in a few small depressions of the basin.

Other writers believe that certain thick salt deposits were formed in desert basins (with no necessary connection with the sea), through the extensive leaching of small quant.i.ties of salt from previous sediments, and its transportation by water to desert lakes, where it was precipitated as the lakes evaporated. Over a long period of time large amounts of salt could acc.u.mulate in the lakes, and thick deposits could result. Such hypotheses also explain those cases where common salt beds are unaccompanied by gypsum, since land streams can easily be conceived to have been carrying sodium chloride without appreciable calcium sulphate; in ocean waters, on the other hand, so far as known both calcium sulphate and sodium chloride are always present, and gypsum would be expected to accompany the common salt.

A partial explanation of some great thicknesses found in salt beds is that these beds, especially when soaked with water, are highly plastic and incompetent under pressure. In the deformation of the enclosing rocks, the salt beds will flow somewhat like viscous liquids, and will become thinned on the limbs of the folds and correspondingly thickened on the crests and troughs.

The salt deposits of the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana should be referred to because of their exceptional features. They occur in low domes in Tertiary and more recent sands, limestones, and clays. Vertical thicknesses of a few thousand feet of salt have been found, but the structure is known only from drilling. In some of these domes are also found petroleum, gypsum, and sulphur (p. 110). No igneous rocks are known in the vicinity. It has been thought by some that the deposits were formed by hot waters ascending along fissures from underlying igneous rocks, and the upbowing of the rocks has been variously explained as due to the expanding force of growing crystals, to hydrostatic pressure of the solutions, and to laccolithic intrusions. On the other hand, the uniform a.s.sociation of other salt and gypsum deposits with sedimentary rocks, and the absence of igneous rocks, suggest that these deposits may have had essentially a sedimentary origin, and that they have been modified by subsequent deformation and alteration. The origin is still uncertain.

Other mineral deposits formed under much the same conditions as salt are gypsum, potash, borax, nitrates, and minerals of bromine; and in a study of the origin of salt deposits these minerals should also be considered.

TALC AND SOAPSTONE

ECONOMIC FEATURES

Soapstone is a rock composed mainly of the mineral talc. Popularly the terms _talc_ and _soapstone_ are often used synonymously. The softness, greasy feel, ease of shaping, and resistance to heat and acids of this material make it useful for many purposes. Soapstone is cut into slabs for laundry tubs, laboratory table tops, and other structural purposes.

Finer grades are cut into slate pencils and acetylene burners. Ground talc or soapstone is used as a filler for paper, paint, and rubber goods, and in electrical insulation. Fine grades are used for toilet powder.

Pyrophyllite (hydrated aluminum silicate) resembles talc in some of its properties and is used in much the same way. Fine English clays (p. 85) are sometimes used interchangeably with talc as paper filler.

The United States produces nearly two-thirds of the world's talc. The other large producers are France, Italy, Austria, and Canada (Ontario).

The United States is independent of foreign markets for the bulk of its talc consumption, but some carefully prepared talc of high quality is imported from Canada, Italy, and France. Italy is our chief source of talc for pharmaceutical purposes, though recently these needs have been largely supplied by high-grade talc from California. In the United States, Vermont and New York are the leading producers of talc and Virginia of soapstone slabs. Reserves are large.

GEOLOGIC FEATURES

Talc is hydrated magnesium silicate, as is also serpentine, a mineral with which talc is closely a.s.sociated. Both are common alteration products of magnesian silicate minerals such as olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole. Talc is also derived from the recrystallization of magnesian carbonates.

Talc deposits consist of lenses and bands in metamorphic limestones, schists, and gneisses of ancient age. The talc itself is usually schistose like the wall rocks, and is largely a product of mechanical mas.h.i.+ng. In some cases, also, talc results from the alteration of igneous rocks without mas.h.i.+ng--as in the case of the large talc and soapstone deposits of Virginia, which are the result of rather complete alteration of basic igneous rocks such as peridot.i.tes and pyroxenites.

Talc is known to result from the weathering of magnesian silicates under surface conditions, but the common occurrence of the princ.i.p.al deposits, in highly crystalline rocks which have undergone extensive deep-seated metamorphism, is an indication that processes other than weathering have been effective. It has been suggested that hot ascending solutions have been responsible for the work, but without much proof. A more plausible explanation for many deposits is that the talc results from the dynamic metamorphism or shearing of impure magnesian carbonates (as in highly magnesian limestones), the process resulting in elimination of the carbon dioxide and recrystallization of the residue. Certain talc deposits, such as those of Ontario, show clearly traces of the original bedding planes of limestone crossing the cleavage of the talc, and the rock bears all the evidence of having formed in the same manner as a common slate. Talc and slate are almost the only mineral products which owe their value princ.i.p.ally to dynamic metamorphism.

CHAPTER XIV

EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

THE GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE GEOLOGIST TO EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

The economic geologist is more vitally concerned with exploration and development than with any other phase of his work. This comes closest to being his special field. Here is a fascinating element of adventure and chance. Here is the opportunity to converge all his knowledge of geology and economics to a practical end. The outcome is likely to be definite one way or the other, thus giving a quant.i.tative measure of the accuracy of scientific thinking which puts a keen edge on his efforts. It is not enough merely to present plausible generalizations; scientific conclusions are followed swiftly either by proof or disproof. With this check always in mind, the scientist feels the necessity for the most rigid verification of his data, methods, and principles.

The general success of the application of geology to exploration and development is indicated by the rapid increase in demand for such service in recent years, and by the large part it plays in nearly all systematic and large-scale operations. The argument is sometimes made that many mineral deposits have been found without geologic a.s.sistance, and that therefore the geologist is superfluous. The answer to this argument is that there are often hundreds of "practical" explorers in the field to one geologist, and that in proportion to numbers the story is quite a different one. The very fact that many large mining organizations, as a result of their experience, now leave these matters of exploration and development largely in the hands of geologists, is a tribute to the usefulness of the science. Also, it is to be remembered that not all applications of geology are made by geologists. It is hard to find a prospector or explorer who has not absorbed empirically some of the elements of geology, and locally this may be enough. Very often men who take pride in the t.i.tle of "practical prospectors" are the ones with the largest stock of self-made geological theories.

During a prospecting boom it is not uncommon for speculators and promoters to attempt to discount geologic considerations where these run counter to their plans. The catching phrase "bet against the geologist"

has a broad appeal to an instinctive preference for the practical as opposed to the theoretical. If the public would stop to note the character of the support behind the geologist, including as it does the larger and more successful operators, it would not be so ready to accept this implication.

Another aspect of this question might be mentioned. There is scarcely an oil field or mining camp in the world without a cherished tradition to the effect that, prior to discovery, the mineral possibilities had been reported on unfavorably by the geologists,--again implying that success has been due to the hard common sense of the h.o.r.n.y-handed prospector.

These traditions persist in the face of favorable geological reports published before discovery; they are natural expressions of the instinctive distrust of any knowledge which is beyond the field of empirical experience. In many cases the discoveries were made long before geologists appeared on the scene. In others, possibly one or two geologic reports were unfavorable, while many were favorable. In the aggregate, there can be no question that, in proportion to the scale of its use, geological advice has had more than its proportion of success.

Even under the most favorable conditions, the chances against the success of an individual drill hole or underground development are likely to be greater than the chances for it. The geologist may not change this major balance; but if he can reduce the adverse chances by only a few per cent, his employment is justified on purely commercial grounds.

The above comments refer to sound geological work by competent scientists. The geologic profession, like many others, is handicapped by numbers of ill-trained men and by many who have a.s.sumed the t.i.tle of geologist without any real claim whatever,--who may do much to discredit the profession. The very newness of the field makes it difficult to draw a sharp line between qualified and unqualified men. With the further development of the profession this condition is likely to be improved (see pp. 427-428).

So new is the large-scale application of geology to exploration and development, and so diverse are the scientific methods of approach, that it is difficult to lay out a specific course for a student which will prepare him for all the opportunities he may have later. In the writer's experience, both in teaching and practice, the only safe course for the student is to prepare broadly on purely scientific lines. With this background he will be able later to adapt himself to most of the special conditions met in field practice.

PARTLY EXPLORED VERSUS VIRGIN TERRITORIES

In selecting an area to work, the geologic explorer will naturally consider various factors mentioned in succeeding paragraphs; but the natural first impulse is to start for some place where no one else has been, and to keep away from the older princ.i.p.al mining camps,--on the a.s.sumption that such grounds have been thoroughly explored and that their geological conditions bearing on exploration are fully understood.

It is safe to say that very few mineral districts are thoroughly understood and explored. Numerous important discoveries of recent years have been in the extensions of old mines and old districts; and when one considers the scale of even the most extensive mine openings in comparison with the vast body of rock available for exploration, it is clear that this will continue to be the situation far into the future.

It is the writer's belief that the economic geologist stands at least as good a chance of success in exploration in the older districts as he does in new fields. Nature is exceedingly erratic and economical in providing places favorable for mineral production; in a producing district the geologic conditions have been proved to be right, and the explorer starts here with this general pragmatic advantage. The explorer here has another great advantage, that much essential information has been gathered which can be built into his plan of operations. He can start, scientifically and practically, where the other man left off. One of the best-known economic geologists has maintained that the more previous work done, the better, because it furnished him more tools to work with. There is no such thing as "skimming the cream" from a geologic problem; there is no end in sight in the search for more knowledge.

This att.i.tude toward the problem of exploration has also proved advantageous on the business or financial side. A successful backer of mineral enterprises once remarked that his best prospecting was done from the rear platform of a private car,--meaning that this mode of transportation had carried him to the center of important mining activities, where the chances for large financial success showed a better percentage than in more general and miscellaneous exploration.

THE USE OF ALL AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Effective scientific exploration requires the use of all available information applying to the specific area. This might seem to be too obvious to require mention, yet observance of the methods of explorers seems to call for warning against the rather common tendency to go into a field unprepared with a thorough knowledge of preceding work. It is easy to forget or overlook some investigation made many years previously; or to a.s.sume that such work is out of date, and of no special consequence in the application of new thought and method which is the basis of the faith and confidence of each new geologic explorer.

A study of the reports on an old camp shows how often the younger generations have ignored the results of the older. Many of the same elementary truths are rediscovered by successive generations, after large efforts which could have been saved by means of proper care and investigation of the previous literature and mapping.

In outlying parts of the world, the existing information bearing on exploration may be at a minimum. In many of the older mining camps and throughout most civilized countries, however, careful investigation will usually disclose a considerable range of useful information bearing on the territory to be explored. In the United States the natural course to be pursued is to hunt carefully through the reports of the U. S.