The Economic Aspect of Geology Part 7

[10] Bastin, Edson S., and McCaskey, H. D., The work on mineral resources done by the U. S. Geological Survey: _Min. Res. of the United States for 1918, U. S. Geol. Survey_, pt. 1, 1920, p. 3a.

[11] Spurr, J. E., Who owns the earth?: _Eng. and Min. Jour._, vol. 109, 1920, pp. 389-390.

CHAPTER V

WATER AS A MINERAL RESOURCE

GENERAL GEOLOGIC RELATIONS

With the solid earth as the special care of geology, it may seem presumptuous for the geologist to claim the waters thereof, but he does not disclaim this inheritance. Water is so all-pervasive that it is more or less taken for granted; and so many and so intricate are its relations that it is not easy to make an objective survey of the water problem in its relation to geology.

The original source of water, as well as of air, is in molten magmas coming from below. These carry water and gases,--some of which are released and some of which are locked up in the rocks on cooling, to be later released during the alterations of the rocks. It is supposed, whatever theory of the origin of the earth we favor, that in its early stages the earth lacked both hydrosphere and atmosphere, and that during the growth of the earth these gradually acc.u.mulated on and near the surface in the manner stated.

During alterations at the surface water is added to the mineral const.i.tution of the rocks, and by alterations deep below the surface it may be subtracted. Water is the agent through which most mineral and chemical changes of rocks are accomplished. It is the agent also which is mainly responsible for the segregation of mineral deposits. Water, both as running water and in the solid form of ice, plays an important part in determining the configuration of the earth's surface. Water is the medium in which most sedimentary rocks are formed. It is an important agent in the development of soil and in organic growth. These various influences of water on geological processes touch the economic field at many points, especially in relation to the concentration of ores and to the development of soils and surface forms.

Water comes even more directly into the field of economic geology as a mineral resource. Water supplies, for the greatest variety of purposes, involve geologic considerations at almost every turn.

Finally, water may be an aid or a hindrance to excavation and to a great variety of structural operations, both in war and in peace; and in this relation it again affords geologic problems.

The part played by water in geologic processes, such as that of mineral segregation, is more or less incidentally discussed in other chapters.

We may consider more fully in this chapter the application of geology to the general subject of water supplies.

From the geological point of view, water is a mineral,--one of the most important of minerals,--as well as a const.i.tuent of other minerals. It becomes a mineral resource when directly used by man. It is ordinarily listed as a mineral resource when s.h.i.+pped and sold as "mineral water,"

but there is obviously no satisfactory line between waters so named and water supplies in general, for most of them are used for the same purposes and none of them are free from mineral matter. Water which is pumped and piped for munic.i.p.al water supply is as much a mineral resource as water which is bottled and sold under a trade name. Likewise water which is used for irrigation, water power, and a wide variety of other purposes may logically be considered a mineral resource.

Notwithstanding the immense economic importance of water as a mineral resource its value is more or less taken for granted, and considerations of valuation and taxation are much less in evidence than in the case of other mineral resources. Water must be had, regardless of value, and market considerations are to a much less extent a limiting factor.

Economic applications of geology to this resource are rather more confined to matters of exploration, development, total supply, and conservation, than to attempts to fix money value.

DISTRIBUTION OF UNDERGROUND WATER

Free water exists in the openings in rocks where it is sometimes called _hygroscopic_ water. There is also a large amount of water combined molecularly with many of the minerals of rocks, in which form it is called _water of const.i.tution_. This water is fixed in the rock so that it is not available for use, though some of the processes of rock alteration liberate it and contribute it to the free water. The immediate source of underground water, both free and combined, is mainly the surface or rain waters. A subordinate amount may come directly from igneous emanations or from destruction of certain hydrous minerals.

Ultimately, as already indicated, even the surface water originates from such sources.

The openings in rocks consist of joints and many other fractures, small s.p.a.ces between the grains of rocks (pore s.p.a.ce), and amygdaloidal and other openings characteristic of surface volcanic rocks. Many of these openings are capillary and sub-capillary in size. Most rocks, even dense igneous rocks, are porous in some degree, and certain rocks are porous in a very high degree. The voids in some surface materials may amount to 84 per cent of the total volume. In general the largest and most continuous openings are near the surface,--where rocks on the whole are more largely of the sedimentary type and are more fractured, disintegrated, and decomposed, than they are deep within the earth. The largest supplies of water are in the unconsolidated sediments. The water in igneous and other dense rocks is ordinarily in more limited quant.i.ty.

APPROXIMATE QUANt.i.tY OF WATER WHICH WILL BE ABSORBED BY SOILS AND ROCKS[1]

------------------------------------------------------ _Volume of water as...o...b..d _Material_ per 100 of material_ ------------------------------------------------------ Sandy soil[2] 45.4 Chalk soil[2] 49.5 Clay[2] 50-52.7 Loam[2] 45.1-60.1 Garden earth [2] 69.0 Coa.r.s.e sand [2] 39.4 Peat subsoil[2] 84.0 Sand 30-40 Sandstone 5-20 Limestone and dolomite 1-8 Chalk 6-27 Granite 03.-.8 ------------------------------------------------------ 1: Mead, Daniel W., _Hydrology_: McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1919, p. 393.

2: Woodward, H. B., _Geology of soils and substrata_: Edward Arnold, London, 1912.

Immediately at the surface, the openings of rocks may not be filled with water; but below the surface, at distances varying with climatic and topographic conditions, the water saturates the openings of the rocks and forms what is sometimes called the _zone of saturation_ or the _sea of underground water_. The top surface of this zone is called the _water table_, or the _ground-water level_. The s.p.a.ce between the water table and the earth's surface is sometimes referred to as the _vadose zone_ or the _zone of weathering_, since it is the belt in which weathering processes are most active. The zone of weathering is not necessarily dry. Water from the surface enters and sinks through it and water also rises through it from below; it may contain suspended pockets of water surrounded by dry rocks; it is not continuously and fully saturated.

The water table or ground-water level may be near or at the surface in low and humid areas, and it may be two thousand feet or more below the surface in arid regions of high topographic relief. Because of the influence of capillarity, the water table is not a horizontal surface.

It shows irregularities more or less following the surface contours, though not nearly so sharply accentuated.

The lower limit of the ground-water is more irregular than the upper surface and is less definitely known. In general, openings in rocks tend to diminish with depth, due to cementation and to closing of cavities by pressures which are too great for the rock to withstand. But rocks differ so widely in their original character, and in their response to physical and chemical environment, that it is not unusual to find dense and impervious rocks above, and open and porous rocks below. The lower limit of the zone of abundant underground water varies accordingly. A well may encounter nearly dry rock at a comparatively shallow depth, or it may reach a porous water-bearing stratum at considerable depth. At the greater depths pockets of water are sometimes found which have a composition different from that of the surface water, and which evidently are isolated from the surface water by zones of non-pervious rock.

Attempts have been made to calculate the total volume of underground water by measuring the openings of rocks and making a.s.sumptions as to the depth to which such openings may extend. In this manner it has been estimated that, if all the ground-water were a.s.sembled in a single body, it would make a sh.e.l.l between eighty and two hundred feet thick (depending on the a.s.sumptions) over all the continental areas.

MOVEMENT OF UNDERGROUND WATER

Availability of water supplies is determined by the movement or flow of water as well as by its distribution and amount. The natural flow of water underground is caused by gravity in the larger openings, but in the smaller openings adhesion and capillarity are also important forces.

Of all the water falling on the surface, some may not go below the surface at all but may immediately evaporate or join the runoff--that is, the surface streams. Another part may penetrate a little distance into the zone of weathering and then join the runoff. Of the water which reaches the zone of saturation, a part may soon come to the surface in low areas and join the runoff, and a part may penetrate deeply.

Above the zone of saturation gravity carries the water downward in devious courses until it reaches the water table. Thereafter its course is determined largely by the lowest point of escape from the water table. In other words, the water table is an irregular surface; and under the influence of gravity the water tends to move from the high to the low points of this surface. Between the point of entrance and the point of escape from the water table, the water follows various courses, depending upon the porosity and the openings in the rocks. In general it fills all of the available openings, and uses the entire available cross section in making its progress from one point to another. The difference in height or the "head" between the point of entrance and the point of escape, together with the porosity of the rock and other factors, determine the general speed of its movement (see p. 73). With equal porosity the flow is at a maximum along a line directly connecting the two points, and on more devious courses the flow is less.

The surface water first enters the ground through innumerable small openings. Soon, however, it tends to be concentrated into channels of easiest flow, with the result that in the later part of its underground course it may be much concentrated in large trunk channels. These channels may consist of joints, or frequently of very coa.r.s.e and pervious beds. The sedimentary rocks as a whole contain the most voids, and therefore the largest flow and largest supply of water is often localized in them. Of the sedimentary rocks, sandstones and limestones usually contain the largest and most continuous openings, and thus afford the freest circulation for water. The voids in fine-grained shales may equal in volume those in sandstones and limestones, but the openings are so small and discontinuous that the water does not flow freely. Regardless of total amount of water, unless there are continuous openings of some size the flow may be small.

The relations of more porous rocks to containing impervious strata also profoundly affect the flow of underground water. Between impervious strata the circulation may be concentrated and vigorous within the porous bed. Where the porous bed is not so contained, the movement may be more dispersed and less vigorous locally. The inclination of the beds, of course, also affects the direction and amount of the flow.

The influence of gravity upon underground water may locally tend toward a state of equilibrium in which there is little movement. In such a case the water is substantially ponded, and moves only when tapped by artificial openings.

WELLS AND SPRINGS

Underground water becomes available for use by means of springs and through wells or bore holes. Water rises to the surface in natural springs at points where the pressure or _head_, due to its entrance into the ground at a higher level, is sufficient to force it to the surface after a longer or shorter underground course. The movement may be all downward and lateral to the point of escape, or it may be downward, lateral, and upward. Ordinarily, the course of spring waters does not carry them far below the surface. Heat and gases may be added beneath the surface by contact with or contributions from cooling igneous rocks.

These may accelerate the upward movement of spring waters, and yield thermal and gas-charged waters, as in the springs and geysers of Yellowstone Park.

When a well is sunk to tap the underground water supply, the water may not rise in the artificial opening but may have to be lifted to the surface.

If, however, the water is confined beneath an impervious stratum and is under pressure from the water of higher areas, a well opening may simply allow it to move upward under its own pressure or head. This pressure may carry it upward only a few feet or quite to the surface or beyond, in which latter case the well is called an _artesian_ well. The essential condition for an artesian circulation is a porous zone, inclining downward from the surface beneath an impervious stratum which tends to confine and pond the water. The water at any point in the water-bearing rock is under pressure which is more or less equivalent to the weight of the column of water determined by the difference in height between this point and the point of entrance or feeding area of the water. If the feeding area is higher than the collar of the well, the water will rise quite to the surface; if not, it will rise only part way. Capillary resistance, however, may and usually does lessen the theoretical pressure so figured.

The flow in deep artesian circulations is ordinarily a slow one. For the artesian wells of southern Wisconsin, it has been calculated that waters entering the outcrop of the southward dipping sandstone and limestone layers in the northern part of the state have required two or three hundred years to reach a point in the southern part of the state where they are tapped. Because of this slow movement, a large number of wells in any one spot may exhaust the local supply faster than it is replenished from the remainder of the formation. The drilling of additional wells near at hand in such cases does not increase the total yield, but merely divides it among a larger number of wells.

The porosity of the rocks, and therefore the flow of an artesian circulation, may in some cases be artificially increased by blasting and shattering.

COMPOSITION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS

Underground waters are never entirely free from dissolved mineral substances, and seldom are they free from suspended particles. Some waters are desired because they contain very small quant.i.ties of dissolved mineral matter. Others are prized because they have an unusually high content of certain mineral substances. In determining the deleterious or beneficial effect of dissolved substances, much depends on the purpose for which the water is to be used,--whether for drinking, was.h.i.+ng, steam boilers, or irrigation. Near the surface underground waters may carry bacteria, as well as animal and vegetable refuse, which from a sanitary standpoint are usually objectionable. Deeper waters are more likely to lack this contamination because of filtration through rocks and soils.

The dissolved mineral substances of underground water are derived for the most part from the solution of rocks with which the waters come in contact, particularly at or near the surface. Through the agency of underground water most of the mineral and chemical changes of rocks are produced. The dissolved substances in solution at any time and place may therefore be regarded as by-products of rock alterations. Locally they may to some extent be derived from direct emanations from cooling igneous ma.s.ses.

The most common mineral substances contained in waters are lime and magnesia. Less common, but abundant locally, are soda, potash, iron, and silica. Waters contain also certain acid and gaseous substances, the most common of which is carbon dioxide; and less widespread, but locally abundant, are chlorine and sulphur dioxide. Where lime and magnesia are abundant the water is ordinarily cla.s.sed as a hard water. Where absent, or subordinate to soda and potash, the water is ordinarily cla.s.sed as a soft water. Large amounts of the acid substances like chlorine and sulphur are detrimental for most purposes. Where there are unusual amounts of carbon dioxide or other gases present, they may by expansion cause the water to bubble.

If we were to attempt to describe and define the characteristics, with reference to dissolved mineral content and temperature, which make a given water more desirable than another, we should enter a field of the most amazing complexity and one with many surprising contradictions. For the most widespread use, the most desirable water is a cold water as free from mineral content as possible, and especially one lacking an excess of lime and magnesia which make it hard; also lacking an excess of acid const.i.tuents like sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, or chlorine, which give the water a taste, or which make impossible its use in boilers. Locally and for special reasons, waters of other qualities are in demand. Waters so excessively carbonated as to bubble, sulphureted waters, chlorine waters, waters high in iron, high in silica, high in potash, high in soda, or high in magnesia, or waters of high temperature, may come to be regarded as desirable. It is an interesting fact that any water with unusual taste, or unusual mineral content, or unusual temperature, is likely to be regarded as having medicinal value.

Sometimes this view is based on scientific knowledge; sometimes it is an empirical conclusion based on experience; and again it may be merely superst.i.tion. In one case the desirable feature may be the presence of a large amount of carbon dioxide; in another case it may be its absence.

In one case the desirable feature may be high temperature; in another case low temperature. The same combination of qualities which in a certain locality may be regarded as highly desirable, may be regarded as highly detrimental somewhere else where certain other types of waters are in vogue.