The Economic Aspect of Geology Part 5

MECHANICALLY DEPOSITED MINERALS

Mechanical erosion of preexisting mineral deposits or rocks and their transportation, sorting, and deposition are responsible for the placers of gold, tin, tungsten, platinum, and various precious stones, and for certain iron sands and conglomerates. Sands, sandstones, shales, and certain clays and bauxites also belong in this group. These deposits may be formed under air or under water, and under various climatic and topographic conditions. During the process of formation the minerals of differing density are more or less sorted out and tend to become segregated in layers. The process is not unlike the artificial process of mechanical concentration where ores are crushed, shaken up, and treated with running water. The process is most effective for minerals which are resistant to abrasion and to solution, and of such density as to differentiate them from the other minerals of the parent rock.

The origin of deposits of this kind is fairly obvious where they are of recent age and have not been subsequently altered or buried. A considerable amount of experimental work has brought out clearly the main elements of the processes. Physiographic and climatic conditions play an important part, and cannot be safely overlooked by anyone studying such deposits.

Extensive copper deposits exist as sediments (pp. 205-206). It is not clear to what extent they are mechanically or to what extent chemically deposited. For the most part the concentration of copper in this manner has not been sufficient to yield deposits of large commercial value; the mineral is too much dispersed. Relatively small amounts are mined in the Mansfield shales of Germany and the Nonesuch shales and sandstones of the Lake Superior country.

The Clinton and similar iron ores of the United States and Newfoundland, the pre-Cambrian iron ores of Brazil, and the Jura.s.sic iron ores of England and western Europe (pp. 166-167) are now commonly agreed to be direct sedimentary deposits in which mechanical agencies of sorting and deposition played a considerable part. How far chemical and bacterial agencies have also been effective is not clear. The climatic, topographic, and other physiographic and sedimentary conditions which cause the deposition of this great group of ores present one of the great unsolved problems of economic geology. The study of present-day conditions of deposition affords little clue as to the peculiar combination of conditions which was necessary to accomplish such remarkable results in the past.

On the whole, minerals of this mechanically deposited group are not greatly affected by later surficial alteration and concentration, because, having already been subjected to weathering, they are in a condition to resist such influences.

CHEMICALLY AND ORGANICALLY DEPOSITED MINERALS

The products of surface weathering and erosion are in part carried away in chemical solution and redeposited as sediments. Sediments thus formed include limestone and dolomite, siderite, salt, gypsum, potash, sulphur, phosphates, nitrates, and other minerals. Precipitation may be caused by chemical reactions, by organic secretion, or by evaporation of the solutions. The processes are qualitatively understood and it is usually possible to ascertain with reasonable accuracy the conditions of depth of water, relation to sh.o.r.e line, climate, nature of erosion, and other similar factors; yet the vast scale of some of these deposits, and their erratic areal and stratigraphic distribution, present unsolved problems as to the precise combinations of factors which have made such results possible.

Chemically and organically deposited minerals of this cla.s.s are usually susceptible to further alteration by surface weathering, and some of them, for instance the phosphates and siderites, are thus secondarily concentrated. These processes are discussed under the next heading.

In general the great unsolved problem of the origin of the entire group of mineral deposits in placers and sediments relates to the scale of the results. Observation of present-day processes and conditions of deposition of these minerals affords satisfactory evidence of their nature, but fails to give us a clear idea of the precise combinations of agencies and conditions necessary to produce such vast results as are represented by the mineral deposits. For example, solution of iron on a land surface and redeposition in bogs and lagoons (as actually observed to be taking place today) show how some iron-ore sediments may be formed; but these processes are entirely inadequate to explain the deposition of iron ores in thick ma.s.ses over broad areas without intermingling of other sediments--as represented by the Clinton iron ores of North America, the Jura.s.sic ores of Europe and England, and the ancient iron ores of Brazil. The Paleozoic seas in northern and eastern United States encroached over land areas to the north and east and deposited ordinary sediments such as sandstone, shale, and limestone.

Suddenly, without, so far as known, tapping any new sources of supply on the ancient land areas, and without any yet ascertainable change in topographic or climatic conditions, they deposited enormous ma.s.ses of iron ore. There is clearly some cyclic factor in the situation which we do not yet understand.

The various deposits of salt, gypsum, potash, sulphur, and other minerals are known to be the result of evaporation, and the deposition of each of these minerals is known to be related to the degree of evaporation as well as to temperature, pressure, and factors such as ma.s.s action and crystallization of double salts. The nature of the processes is fairly well understood; but again, observation of the present-day operation of these processes fails to give us much clue to the enormous acc.u.mulations at certain times and places in the past. It is difficult to say just what conditions of climate, in combination with particular physiographic factors, could have preserved uniformity of conditions for the long periods necessary to account for some of the enormously thick salt deposits. Again some cyclic factor in the situation remains to be worked out.

SEDIMENTARY MINERAL DEPOSITS WHICH HAVE REQUIRED FURTHER CONCENTRATION TO MAKE THEM COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE

The conditions for the direct deposition of sedimentary mineral deposits of the foregoing cla.s.s are also responsible for the deposition of minerals in more dispersed or disseminated form, requiring further concentration through surface agencies to render them commercially available. Some of these deposits are discussed below.

The lead and zinc ores of the Mississippi Valley, Virginia, Tennessee, Silesia, Belgium, and Germany (pp. 211-212, 216-219) are in sedimentary rocks far removed from igneous sources. Lead and zinc were deposited in more or less dispersed form with the enclosing sediments. It is supposed that deposition was originally chemical and was favored by the presence of organic material, which is a rather common accompaniment of the sediments. It is supposed further that these organic partic.i.p.ants were originally localized during sedimentation in so-called estuarine channels and sh.o.r.e-line embayments. When subsequently exposed to weathering, the lead and zinc minerals were dissolved and redeposited in more concentrated form in fissures and as replacements of limestone.

Agreement as to origin of these deposits, so far as it exists, does not go beyond these broad generalizations. There is controversy as to whether the original sources of the ore minerals were the sediments directly above, from which the mineral solutions have been transferred downward during weathering and erosion, or whether the original minerals were below and have been transferred upward by artesian circulation, or whether they were situated laterally and have been brought to their present position by movement along the beds, or whether there has been some combination of these processes. It is the writer's view that the evidence thus far gathered favors on the whole the conclusion of direct downward concentration from overlying sources which have been removed by erosion, although this conclusion fails to explain why certain sulphide deposits give so little evidence of important downward transfer from their present position. This matter is further discussed on pages 216-219. The choice of the various alternatives has some practical bearing on exploration.

Since these ores were brought into approximately their present position, they have undergone considerable oxidation near the surface and secondary sulphide enrichment below. The chemical and mineralogical changes are pretty well understood, but the quant.i.tative range of these changes and their relative importance in determining the net result are far from known. Undoubted evidence of secondary sulphide enrichment has led in some quarters to an a.s.sumption of effectiveness in producing values which is apparently not borne out by quant.i.tative tests.

A group of mineral deposits in sandstones in Utah is regarded as due to chemical concentration of material originally disseminated in the rock.

They include silver, copper, manganese, uranium, and radium deposits.

The Silver Reef deposits, including silver, copper, uranium, and vanadium, are commercially the most important of this type.[8] The ore minerals are commonly a.s.sociated with carbonized material representing plant remains, and have replaced the calcareous and cementing material of the rock, and also some of the quartz grains. The deposits are regarded as having been formed by circulating waters which collected the minerals disseminated through the sedimentary rocks, and deposited them on contact with carbonaceous matter, earlier sulphides, or other precipitating agents. The circulation in some places is believed to have been of artesian character and to have been controlled to a large extent by structural features. The Silver Reef deposits are near the crest of a prominent anticline. Most of the minerals have been later altered by surface solutions.

Another great group of ores to be considered under this head are the iron ores of Lake Superior,--which were originally deposited as sediments, called jaspers or iron formations, with too low a percentage of iron to be of use, and which have required a secondary concentration by surficial agencies to render them valuable. The process of concentration has been a simple one. The iron minerals have been oxidized in place and the non-ferrous minerals have been leached out, leaving iron ores. This process contrasts with the concentration described above, in that there is little evidence of collection of iron minerals from disseminated sources. The Lake Superior iron ores are essentially residual concentrations in place. The outstanding problems of secondary concentration relate to the structural features which determined the channels through which the oxidizing and leaching waters worked, and to the topographic and climatic conditions which existed at the time the work was done. As with many other cla.s.ses of ores, it was first a.s.sumed that these processes were related to the present erosion surface; but it is now known that concentration happened long ago under conditions far different from those now existing. These deposits contribute to the rapidly acc.u.mulating evidence of the _cyclic_ nature of ore concentration.

Our least satisfactory knowledge of the Lake Superior ores relates to the peculiar conditions which determined the initial stage of sedimentation of the so-called iron formation. As in the case of the Clinton iron ores, no present-day sedimentation gives an adequate clue.

Students of the problem have fallen back on the a.s.sociation of the iron formation with contemporaneous volcanic rocks, as affording a possible explanation of the wide departure from ordinary conditions of sedimentation evidenced by these formations.[9]

Coal deposits are direct results of sedimentation of organic material.

They are mainly acc.u.mulations of vegetable matter in place. To make them available for use, however, they undergo a long period of condensation and distillation. Conditions of primary deposition may be inferred from modern swamps and bogs; but, as in the case of sediments described under the preceding heading, we are sometimes at a loss to explain the magnitude of the process, and especially to explain the maintenance of proper surface conditions of plant growth and acc.u.mulation for the long periods during which subsidence of land areas and encroachment of seas are believed to have been taking place. The processes of secondary concentration are also understood qualitatively, but much remains to be learned about the influences of pressure and heat, the effect of impervious capping rocks, and other factors.

Various oil shales and asphaltic deposits are essentially original sediments which have subsequently undergone more or less decay and distillation. The migration of the distillates to suitable underground reservoirs is responsible for the acc.u.mulation of oil and gas pools.

Oil and gas are distillates from these oil shales and asphaltic deposits, and also from other organic sediments such as carbonaceous limestones. The distillates have migrated to their present positions under pressure of ground-waters. The stratigraphic horizons favorable to their acc.u.mulation are generally recognized. The geologist is concerned in identifying these horizons and in ascertaining where they exist underground. He is further concerned in a.n.a.lysis of the various structural conditions which will give a clue to the existence of local reservoirs in which the oil or gas may have been acc.u.mulated. So capricious are the oil migrations that the most intensive study of these conditions still leaves vast undiscovered possibilities.

ANAMORPHISM OF MINERAL DEPOSITS

Mineral deposits formed in any one of the ways indicated above may undergo repeated vicissitudes, both at the surface and deep below the surface, with consequent modifications of character. They may be cemented or replaced by introduction of mineral solutions from without.

They may be deformed by great earth pressures, undergoing what is called dynamic metamorphism (pp. 25-27), which tends to distort them and give them schistose and crystalline characters. They may be intruded by igneous rocks, causing considerable chemical, mineralogical, and structural changes. All these changes may take place near the surface, but on the whole they are more abundant and have more marked effects deep below the surface.

In general all these changes of the deeper zone tend to make the rocks more crystalline and dense and to make the minerals more complex.

Cavities are closed. The process is in the main an integrating and constructive one which has been called _anamorphism_, to contrast it with the disintegrating and destructive processes near the surface, which have been called _katamorphism_ (see also pp. 27-28). There is little in the process of anamorphism in the way of sorting and segregation which tends to enrich and concentrate the metallic ore bodies. On the contrary the process tends to lock up the valuable minerals in resistant combinations with other substances, making them more difficult to recover in mining. Later igneous intrusions or the ordinary ground-waters may bring in minerals which locally enrich ores under anamorphic conditions, but these are relatively minor effects. An ill.u.s.tration of the general effect is afforded by a comparison of the Cuban iron ores, which are soft and can be easily taken out, with the Cle Elum iron ores of Was.h.i.+ngton, which seem to be of much the same origin, but which have subsequently been buried by other rocks and rendered hard and crystalline. In the first case the ores can be mined easily and cheaply with steam shovels at the surface. In the second, underground methods of mining are required, which cost too much for the grade of ore recovered.

On the other hand, the same general kind of anamorphic processes, when applied to coal, result in concentration and improvement of grade. The same is true up to a certain point in the concentration of oil; but where the process goes too far, the oil may be lost (pp. 140-141).

CONCLUSION

Mineral deposits are formed and modified by practically all known geologic processes, but looked at broadly the main values are produced in three princ.i.p.al ways:

(1) As after effects of igneous intrusion, through the agency of aqueous and gaseous solutions given off from the cooling magma.

(2) Through the sorting processes of sedimentation,--the same processes which form sandstone, shale, and limestone. Organic agencies are important factors in these processes.

(3) Through weathering of the rock surface in place, which may develop values either by dissolving out the valuable minerals and redepositing them in concentrated form, or by dissolving out the non-valuable minerals and leaving the valuable minerals concentrated in place. The latter process is by far the more important.

The overwhelming preponderance of values of mineral deposits as a whole is found in the second of the cla.s.ses named.

Under all these conditions it appears that the maximum results are obtained at and near the surface. On the scale of the earth even the so-called deep veins may be regarded as deposits from solutions reaching the more open and cooler outer portions of the earth. However, valuable mineral deposits are found in the deepest rocks which have been exposed by erosion, and the question of what would be found at still greater depths, closer to the center of the earth, is a matter of pure speculation.

Ultimately all minerals are derived from igneous sources within the earth. The direct contributions from these sources are only in small part of sufficient concentration to be of value; for the most part they need sorting and segregation under surface conditions.

We can only speculate as to causes of the occurrence of valuable minerals in certain igneous rocks and not in others. Many granites are intruded into the outer sh.e.l.l of the earth, but only a few carry "minerals"; also, of a series of intrusions in the same locality, only one may carry valuable minerals. It is clear that in some fas.h.i.+on these minerals are primarily segregated within the earth. Causes of this segregation are so involved with the problem of the origin of the earth as a whole that no adequate explanation can yet be offered. Our inductive reasoning from known facts is as yet limited to the segregation within a given ma.s.s of magma, and even here the conditions are only dimly perceived. A discussion of these ultimate problems is beyond the scope of this book.

FOOTNOTES:

[4] Ransome, Frederick Leslie, Copper deposits near Superior, Arizona: _Bull. 540, U. S. Geol. Survey_, 1914, pp. 152-153; The copper deposits of Ray and Miami, Arizona: _Prof. Paper 115, U. S. Geol. Survey_, 1919, p. 156; Discussion: _Econ. Geol._, vol. 8, 1913, p. 721.

[5] For more specific definitions of vertical zones of ore deposition in a.s.sociation with igneous rocks see Spurr, J. E., Theory of ore deposition: _Econ. Geol._, vol. 7, 1912, pp. 489-490; Lindgren, W., _Mineral deposits_, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 2d ed., 1919, Chapters XXIV-XXVI; and Emmons, W. H., _The principles of economic geology_, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1918, Chapters VI-VIII.

An excellent discussion of a case of vertical and areal zoning of minerals is contained in _Ore deposits of the Boulder batholith of Montana_, by Paul Billingsley and J. A. Grimes, Bull. Am. Inst. Min.

Engrs., vol. 58, 1918, pp. 284-368.

[6] Butler, B. S., Loughlin, G. F., Heikes, V. C., and others, The ore deposits of Utah: _Prof. Paper 111, U. S. Geol. Survey_, 1920, p. 201.

[7] Leith, C. K., and Mead, W. J., _Metamorphic Geology_, Pt. 2, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1915.

[8] Butler, B. S., Loughlin, G. F., Heikes, V. C., and others, The ore deposits of Utah: _Prof. Paper 111, U. S. Geol. Survey_, 1920, pp.

152-158.

[9] Van Hise, C. R., and Leith, C. K., Geology of the Lake Superior region. _Mon. 52, U. S. Geol. Survey_, 1911, pp. 506-518; and references there given.